Prevalence of Triad-RED-S symptoms in high-level Kenyan male and female distance runners and corresponding control groups.

PURPOSE: This study examined and compared select Triad-RED-S components/risk factors in high-level Kenyan male and female distance runners to corresponding control groups; focusing on examining energy intake (EI), bone indices, and hormonal markers. METHODS: A cross-sectional, observational design was used in which Kenyan male and female (n = 30 and n = 26, respectively) middle- and long-distance runners and corresponding male and female control groups (n = 29 and n = 29, respectively) were examined. The participant's bone mineral density (BMD) at the lumbar spine, right femur, and total body were measured using a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry analysis. Complete blood counts (CBC) were done on the whole blood specimens and hormonal measurements were performed on plasma specimens. In addition, athletes completed metabolic testing to determine maximal oxygen uptakes and 7-day dietary diaries. RESULTS: Overall daily EI across runners and controls within each sex were low, but not significantly different (p > 0.05). Prevalence of low BMD values (Z score < - 2.0) was comparable across groups in each sex (p > 0.05). CBC measures suggested that both runners and controls were healthy. Finally, slight hormonal differences between runners and their respective controls existed (p < 0.05), but were not clinically meaningful or observed in typical Triad-RED-S-related parameters. CONCLUSION: High-level Kenyan male and female runners had low daily EI, but no tendency toward a higher prevalence of low BMD, or Triad-RED-S-related hormonal abnormalities. The occurrence of low EI was not a major risk factor in our athletes; this calls into question whether the current criteria for Triad-RED-S are entirely applicable for athletes of African ethnicity.

Shorter Ground Contact Time and Better Running Economy: Evidence From Female Kenyan Runners.

ABSTRACT: Mooses, M, Haile, DW, Ojiambo, R, Sang, M, Mooses, K, Lane, AR, and Hackney, AC. Shorter ground contact time and better running economy: evidence from female Kenyan runners. J Strength Cond Res 35(2): 481-486, 2021-Previously, it has been concluded that the improvement in running economy (RE) might be considered as a key to the continued improvement in performance when no further increase in V̇o2max is observed. To date, RE has been extensively studied among male East African distance runners. By contrast, there is a paucity of data on the RE of female East African runners. A total of 10 female Kenyan runners performed 3 × 1,600-m steady-state run trials on a flat outdoor clay track (400-m lap) at the intensities that corresponded to their everyday training intensities for easy, moderate, and fast running. Running economy together with gait characteristics was determined. Subjects showed moderate to very good RE at the first (202 ± 26 ml·kg-1·km-1) and second (188 ± 12 ml·kg-1·km-1) run trials, respectively. Correlation analysis revealed significant relationship between ground contact time (GCT) and RE at the second run (r = 0.782; p = 0.022), which represented the intensity of anaerobic threshold. This study is the first to report the RE and gait characteristics of East African female athletes measured under everyday training settings. We provided the evidence that GCT is associated with the superior RE of the female Kenyan runners.

Prevalence of Low Energy Availability in Competitively Trained Male Endurance Athletes.

Background and Objectives: Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) has been introduced as a broad-spectrum syndrome leading to possible dysfunction in numerous physiological systems, driven primarily by low energy availability (EA). Research in females has identified specific EA cut-points indicative of risk level for developing physiological and performance disturbances. Cut-points in males have yet to be evaluated. This study examined the prevalence of low EA in competitive (non-elite), recreationally trained (CRT) male endurance athletes. Materials and Methods: Subjects were 108 CRT (38.6 ± 13.8 y; 12.2 ± 5.4 h/wk training) male endurance athletes (runners, cyclists, triathletes) who completed a descriptive survey online via Qualtrics® and returned 3 day diet and exercise training records. EA was calculated from returned surveys and training records. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) and lean body mass (LBM) were estimated from self-reported survey data. Prevalence of risk group was categorized based on the female cut-points: at risk (AR) ≤30 kcal/kg LBM, moderate risk (MR) = 30-45 kcal/kg LBM, or no risk (NR) ≥45 kcal/kg LBM. Results: In this sample, 47.2% (n = 51) were classified as AR, 33.3% (n = 36) as MR, and 19.4% (n = 21) as NR for low EA. Cyclists had lower EA (26.9 ± 17.4 kcal/kg LBM, n = 45) than runners (34.6 ± 13.3 kcal/kg LBM, n = 55, p = 0.016) and all other sport categories (39.5 ± 19.1 kcal/kg LBM, n = 8, p = 0.037). Conclusions: The findings indicate this sample had a high prevalence of risk for low EA, at 47.2%. Only 19.4% of participants were at no risk, meaning ~80% of participants were at some degree of risk of experiencing low EA. Cyclists were at greater risk in this cohort of low EA, although why this occurred was unclear and is in need of further investigation. Future research should address whether the current female cut-points for low EA are appropriate for use in male populations.

Cortisol and testosterone dynamics following exhaustive endurance exercise.

PURPOSE: Cortisol (C) and testosterone (T) are impacted significantly by prolonged endurance exercise with inverse responses. Increases in C are witnessed concurrently with decrements in T, possibly impacting recovery. This study was conducted to assess the dynamics of C and free T (fT) concentration and recovery time following an exhaustive endurance exercise session (EES). METHODS: 12 endurance-trained males (X ± SD: VO2max 66.3±4.8 ml/kg/min, age 22.8 ± 3.1 years, body fat 11.0 ± 1.4 %, training 7.1 ± 3.2 years) completed a treadmill EES at ventilatory threshold (74.7 ± 4.6 % of VO2max; 96.9 ± 10.8 min). Basal blood C and fT were collected at baseline: -48, -24 h, and immediately before (0 h) the EES as well as immediately (+0 h), +24 h, +48 h, and +72 h after the EES. Blood glucose (G) was measured to confirm no undue influence on C. Statistically data were analyzed with repeated measures ANOVA (LSD post hoc). RESULTS: C (nmol/L) increased significantly from -48 h (321 ± 59) to +0 h (701 ± 178) (p < 0.001), and displayed a baseline overshoot with +24 h (209 ± 67) being significantly lower than -48 and +0 h (p < 0.03). fT (pmol/L) decreased significantly from -48 h (161 ± 40) to +0 h (106 ± 38) (p < 0.01) and remained lower at +24 h (110 ± 33) and +48 h (129 ± 30) (p < 0.001). G remained stable throughout. A moderately negative correlation (r = -0.636, p < 0.026) was found between C and fT at +0 h. CONCLUSIONS: EES recovery may require 48 h for C and 72 h for fT to return to baseline values. Furthermore, C and fT were only correlated immediately post-exercise. Future research should perform more frequent measurements throughout time course.

Pre-exercise participation cardiovascular screening in a heterogeneous cohort of adult cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent of pre-exercise participation ("preparticipation") health screening in a heterogeneous cohort of adult cancer patients. METHODS: Patients (n = 413) with histologically confirmed solid or hematologic malignancy were categorized into preparticipation health screening risk stratification based on American College Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommendations. Risk of an exercise-related event was evaluated during a symptom-limited cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) with 12-lead electrocardiography (ECG). RESULTS: Participant risk was categorized as low risk (n = 59, 14%), moderate risk (n = 217, 53%), and high risk (n = 137, 33%). Mean peak oxygen consumption was 21.7 ± 6.7 mL/kg(-1) per minute(-1) or 19.5 ± 21.7% below age- and sex-predicted sedentary values. No major serious adverse events or fatal events were observed during CPET procedures. A total of 31 positive ECG tests were observed, for an event rate of 8%. ACSM risk stratification did not predict the risk of a positive test. Age, statin use, antiplatelet therapy use, cardiovascular disease, prior treatment with anthracycline or radiation therapy, and being sedentary were predictors of a positive test (all p < .10). CONCLUSION: The patient risk-stratification profile strongly suggests that the use of formalized preparticipation health screening is required in all oncology scenarios; however, risk of an exercise-induced event is low, suggesting that the use of exercise testing is not required for pre-exercise clearance in the majority of patients.

Safety and efficacy of aerobic training in operable breast cancer patients receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy: a phase II randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of moderate-to-high intensity aerobic training in breast cancer patients receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy. METHODS: Twenty patients with stage IIB-IIIC operable breast cancer were randomly assigned to receive doxorubicin plus cyclophosphamide (AC) or AC in combination with aerobic training (AC + AET) (n = 10/group) for 12 weeks. The AC+ AET group performed three supervised aerobic cycle ergometry sessions per week at 60%-100% of exercise capacity (VO2peak). Safety outcomes included exercise testing as well as treatment- and exercise training-related adverse events (AEs), whereas efficacy outcomes included cardiopulmonary function and patient-reported outcomes (PROs) as measured by a cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) and Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Breast (FACT-B) scale. RESULTS: Twelve non-significant ECG abnormalities and three non-life threatening events occurred during CPET procedures. One AE was reported during aerobic training. There were no significant between group differences for clinician-documented events (e.g. pain, nausea) or hematological parameters (p's > 0.05). Attendance and adherence rates to aerobic training were 82% and 66%, respectively. Intention-to-treat analysis indicated that VO2peak increased by 2.6 ± 3.5 ml/kg/min (+ 13.3%) in the AC + AET group and decreased by 1.5 ± 2.2 ml/kg/min (-8.6%) in the AC group (between group difference, p = 0.001). FACT-B increased 11.1 points in the AC + AET group compared to a 1.5 point decrease in the AC group (between group difference, p = 0.685). CONCLUSION: Moderate-to-high intensity aerobic training when conducted with one-on-one supervision is a safe adjunct therapy associated with improvements in cardiopulmonary function and select PROs during neoadjuvant chemotherapy.

Influence of energy availability on metabolic hormonal profiles in east African female and male distance runners.

BACKGROUND: Energy availability (EA) and relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) are understudied in East African endurance athletes, both females (F) and males (M). This study assessed the metabolic hormonal profiles of such athletes relative to their EA status. METHODS: Forty athletes (F=16, M=24) had their EA status, training, maximal oxygen uptake, and resting blood samples assessed using standard research practices. Subjects were stratified into two groups, high EA (HiEA) and low EA (LoEA) based on combined median value. RESULTS: Cortisol (P=0.034) and insulin (P=0.044) were significantly elevated in the LoEA group, while growth hormone (P=0.045) was significantly suppressed; and, prolactin (P=0.078) trended towards suppression, respectively compared to the HiEA group. All other hormonal comparison were non-significant. CONCLUSIONS: Metabolic hormonal profiles of female and male African distance runners are affected by their EA status. Aspects of these alterations agree in part with published findings based upon White populations, although some differences exist and need further investigation.

Marathon Running and Sexual Libido in Adult Men: Exercise Training and Racing Effects.

We examined whether endurance training for a standard marathon (42.2 km) had a greater influence on male libido than more generalized endurance exercise training. We surveyed adult men (>1000) who regularly engaged in endurance running to evaluate exercise training histories-patterns and libido characteristics. Our participants were primarily recruited from North America and Europe. Results indicate men conducting marathon training had lower libido scores (p<0.05; ~20%, d=0.44) than those not doing such specific training. Factors most related to libido were: 1) the number of years of training, and 2) the proportion of high-intensity effort conducted in training (inverse relationships); regardless of whether marathon training was performed or not. Our survey approach did not allow us to determine the cause of the reduced libido, but we speculate it could relate to: 1) chronic physical fatigue from high volumes of exercise training, 2) behavioral accommodations in energy expenditure, or else 'Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport' (RED-S) syndrome, and/or 3) endocrinological adaptations as a result of the exercise training (i.e., low testosterone). From a practical perspective, we recommend couples attempting conception should inform their healthcare providers of the male partner's exercise habits concerning endurance running as this may be a factor relative to potential infertility.

Energy Availability and RED-S Risk Factors in Competitive, Non-elite Male Endurance Athletes.

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) is predicated on the assumption that low energy availability (EA) induces deficiencies-dysfunction in multiple physiologic systems. However, research on RED-S and EA in male athletes is limited in comparison to women. The aim of this study is to investigate EA and the risk factors for RED-S, and their potential associations in non-elite male endurance athletes. Laboratory assessments for resting metabolic rate (RMR), bone mineral density (BMD), blood hormonal biomarkers and maximal aerobic capacity were conducted on 60 competitive, recreationally trained male endurance athletes (age=43.4±11.6 years [mean±SD], training=10.9±2.7 h/wk, 7.1±8.8 years). Participants provided 7-days of training logs and 4-days of diet records. Diet and training records were used to calculate EA. Correlations were used to examine associations between EA and RMR, BMD, stress fractures and reproductive, metabolic and bone biomarkers. Mean EA was 28.7±13.4 kcal/kg fat free mass (FFM), which categorized our sample as low EA (based upon published criterion, < 30 kcal/kg FFM) and at a high risk for RED-S. Hormonal and bone biomarkers were in normal clinical ranges, even though EA was low. The only interesting significant association was EA being negatively associated with total body BMD (r = -0.360, P =0.005), opposite of expectations. On average our subjects displayed a state of low EA based upon the criterion which has been primarily developed from female-based research. Nonetheless, our participants displayed no major hormonal or bone health disturbances found in athletes diagnosed with RED-S. A value of < 30 kcal/kg FFM to diagnose low EA may not be appropriate for non-elite endurance trained men.

Influence of dietary carbohydrate intake on the free testosterone: cortisol ratio responses to short-term intensive exercise training.

This study examined the effect of dietary carbohydrate (CHO) consumption on the free testosterone to cortisol (fTC) ratio during a short-term intense micro-cycle of exercise training. The fTC ratio is a proposed biomarker for overreaching-overtraining (i.e., training stress or imbalance) in athletes. The ratio was studied in two groups, control-CHO (approximately 60% of daily intake, n = 12) and low-CHO (approximately 30% of daily intake, n = 8), of male subjects who performed three consecutive days of intensive training (approximately 70-75% maximal oxygen consumption, 60 min per day) with a dietary intervention (on the day before and during training). Resting, pre-exercise blood samples were collected under standardized-controlled conditions before each day of training (Pre 1, 2, 3) and on a fourth day after the micro-cycle (Rest). Bloods were analyzed for free testosterone and cortisol via radioimmunoassay procedures. Subjects performed no additional physical activity other than prescribed training. Statistical analysis (ANCOVA) revealed the fTC ratio decreased significantly (p < 0.01) from pre-study resting measurement (Pre 1) to the final post-study resting measurement (Rest) in the low-CHO group (-43%), but no change occurred (p > 0.05) in the control-CHO group (-3%). Findings suggest if the fTC ratio is utilized as a marker of training stress or imbalance it is necessary for a moderately high diet of CHO to be consumed to maintain validity of any observed changes in the ratio value.

Reproductive Dysfunction from Exercise Training: The "Exercise-Hypogonadal Male Condition".

The objective of this short review is to discuss how exercise training in men can result in changes in the reproductive system similar to those observed in women who develop athletic amenorrhea or suffer the Female Athlete Triad. Men chronically exposed to training for endurance sports exhibit persistently reduced basal free and total testosterone concentrations without concurrent luteinizing hormone elevations. These men are deemed to have the "Exercise-Hypogonadal Male Condition" (EHMC). Broadly, dysfunction in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal regulatory axis is associated with either of these states. In women this effect on the axis is linked to the existence of a low energy availability (LEA) state, research in men relative to LEA is ongoing. The exact physiological mechanism inducing the reduction of testosterone in these men is currently unclear but is postulated to be a dysfunction within the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal regulatory axis. The potential exists for the reduced testosterone concentrations within EHMC men to be disruptive and detrimental to some anabolic-androgenic testosterone-dependent physiological processes. Findings, while limited, suggest spermatogenesis problems may exist in some cases; thus, infertility risk in such men is a critical concern. Present evidence suggests the EHMC condition is limited to men who have been persistently involved in chronic endurance exercise training for an extended period of time, and thus is not a highly prevalent occurrence. Nevertheless, it is critical that endocrinologist and fertility clinicians become more aware of the existence of EHMC as a potential problem-diagnosis in their male patients who exercise.

El objetivo de esta breve revisión es describir cómo el entrenamiento físico en hombres puede provocar cambios en el sistema reproductivo similares a los observados en mujeres que desarrollan amenorrea atlética o manifiestan la tríada de la mujer atleta. Hombres expuestos sistemáticamente a entrenamientos para deportes de resistencia exhiben concentraciones de testosterona libre y basal reducidas, pero sin manifestar un aumento simultáneo de hormona luteinizante. Esta condición se denomina "hipogonadismo masculino producto del ejercicio" (EHMC, por su siglas en inglés). Ambos estados están asociados a una disfunción en el eje hipotalámico-hipofisario-gonadal. En las mujeres, la alteración del eje está vinculada a un estado de baja disponibilidad energética (BDE); en los hombres, la investigación relacionada con la BDE está en curso. El mecanismo fisiológico exacto que induce la reducción de testosterona en estos hombres aún no está claro, pero se postula que es una disfunción dentro del eje regulador hipotalámico-hipofisario-gonadal. Existe la posibilidad de que las bajas concentraciones de testosterona de los hombres con EHMC sean disruptivas y perjudiciales para algunos procesos fisiológicos anabólicoandrogénicos dependientes de testosterona. Los hallazgos, aunque limitados, sugieren que en algunos casos pueden existir problemas de espermatogénesis; por lo tanto, el riesgo de infertilidad en tales hombres es una preocupación crucial. La evidencia actual sugiere que el EHMC se limita a hombres que han estado involucrados en entrenamiento de resistencia de manera persistente y durante tiempo prolongado, por lo que el EHMC no es una condición prevalente. De todos modos, es fundamental que médicos endocrinólogos y especialistas en fertilidad estén atentos a la existencia del EHMC como potencial problema ­ y diagnostico ­ que pueden padecer sus pacientes deportistas varones.

Body Mass Index and Type 2 Collagen Turnover in Individuals After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction.

CONTEXT: Individuals with an anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) are at an increased risk of developing posttraumatic osteoarthritis. How osteoarthritis risk factors, such as increased body mass index (BMI), may influence early changes in joint tissue metabolism is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between BMI and type 2 cartilage turnover in individuals with an ACLR. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Research laboratory. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Forty-five individuals (31 women, 14 men) with unilateral ACLR at least 6 months earlier who were cleared for unrestricted physical activity. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Body mass index (kg/m2) and type 2 collagen turnover were the primary outcomes. Body mass index was calculated from objectively measured height and mass. Serum was obtained to measure type 2 collagen turnover, quantified as the ratio of degradation (collagen type 2 cleavage product [C2C]) to synthesis (collagen type 2 C-propeptide [CP2]; C2C : CP2). Covariate measures were physical activity level before ACLR (Tegner score) and current level of disability (International Knee Documentation Committee Index score). Associations of primary outcomes were analyzed for the group as a whole and then separately for males and females. RESULTS: Overall, greater BMI was associated with greater C2C : CP2 (r = 0.32, P = .030). After controlling for covariates (Tegner and International Knee Documentation Committee Index scores), we identified a similar association between BMI and C2C : CP2 (partial r = 0.42, P = .009). Among women, greater BMI was associated with greater C2C : CP2 before (r = 0.47, P = .008) and after (partial r = 0.50, P = .008) controlling for covariates. No such association occurred in men. CONCLUSIONS: Greater BMI may influence greater type 2 collagen turnover in those with ACLR. Individuals, especially women, who maintain or reduce BMI may be less likely to demonstrate greater type 2 collagen turnover ratios after ACLR.

The Cortisol Awakening Response: Association With Training Load in Endurance Runners.

The cortisol awakening response (CAR) is commonly used as a marker of psychological stress; however, it is unknown whether CAR is affected by regular physical-exercise-induced stress. PURPOSE: To assess the relationship between training load and CAR. METHODS: Recreational endurance athletes were recruited from local running clubs. Subjects (n = 15) completed training logs for 2 wk, with various training loads, including psychometric analysis (Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes). Subjects provided saliva samples each day immediately after waking and 30 min postwaking. Samples were analyzed for cortisol concentration via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and subsequently were analyzed for CAR and CAR%. Daily training load was calculated and analyzed as training impulse. Simple linear regression was used to assess the relationship between CAR and training impulse. RESULTS: CAR (r2 = .352, P = .025) and CAR% (r2 = .373, P = .012) both showed a significant negative relationship with training load. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that CAR is affected by regular exercise training loads in recreational athletes. It is recommended that future CAR research control for fitness level and exercise training load in physically active populations.

Endurance Exercise Training and Male Sexual Libido.

PURPOSE: This article aimed to study the associations between aspects of endurance exercise training and sexual libido in healthy men using a cross-sectional online survey study design. METHODS: A developed online survey questionnaire was used. The questionnaire was based on preexisting validated questionnaires and was used to assess elements of physical characteristics, exercise training habits, and libido of participants (n = 1077). Three evidence-based categories were created for the primary outcome of total libido score and low, normal, and high-response category sets. The high and normal categories were combined to form a high/normal score group, and the low category formed a low score group. Odds ratio (OR) values were calculated to examine group categorization. RESULTS: Age, training intensity, and training duration of participants had significant (P < 0.02) univariate relationships, with libido scores, and were thus included in the multivariate model. In the multivariate model, training intensity (P < 0.0001) and duration (P < 0.002) components were the most significantly associated with libido group designation (high/normal vs low). Participants with the lowest (OR = 6.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.6-17.9) and mid-range training intensities (OR = 2.8, 95% CI = 1.4-5.3) had greater odds of high/normal libido state than those with the highest training intensity. Participants with the shorter (OR = 4.1, 95% CI = 1.6-10.0) and mid-range training durations (OR = 2.5, 95% CI = 1.3-4.8) at their current intensity also had greater odds of high/normal libido score than those with a greatest duration. CONCLUSION: Exposure to higher levels of chronic intense and greater durations of endurance training on a regular basis is significantly associated with a decreased libido scores in men. Clinicians who treat male patients for sexual disorders and/or council couples on infertility issues should consider the degree of endurance exercise training a man is performing as a potential complicating factor.

Growth Hormone-Insulin-Like Growth Factor Axis, Thyroid Axis, Prolactin, and Exercise.

This chapter addresses what is known about the endocrine system components growth hormone (GH)-insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis, thyroid axis, and prolactin relative to exercise and exercise training. Each one of these hormone axes contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis in the body through impact on a multitude of physiological systems. The homeostatic disruption of exercise causes differing responses in each hormone axis. GH levels increase with sufficient stimulation, and IGFs are released in response to GH from the anterior pituitary providing multiple roles including anabolic properties. Changes in the thyroid hormones T3 and T4 vary greatly with exercise, from increases/decreases to no change in levels across different exercise types, intensities and durations. These ambiguous findings could be due to numerous confounding factors (e.g. nutrition status) within the research. Prolactin increases proportionally to the intensity of the exercise. The magnitude may be augmented with extended durations; conflicting findings have been reported with resistance training. While the responses to exercise vary, it appears there may be overall adaptive and regenerative impacts on the body into recovery by these hormones through immune and tissue inflammatory responses/mediations. Nonetheless, well-designed exercise research studies are still needed on each of these hormones, especially thyroid hormones and prolactin.

CHANGES IN RESTING SALIVARY TESTOSTERONE, CORTISOL AND INTERLEUKIN-6 AS BIOMARKERS OF OVERTRAINING.

BACKGROUND: Overtraining (OVT) is a concern for many athletes. Immunological (increased interleukin-6 [IL-6]) and hormonal (increased cortisol [C], decreased free testosterone [fT]) biomarkers have been analyzed during training to detect OVT development. METHODS: This study determined if resting levels of salivary IL-6, T, and C change during a pre-season resistance training (RT) program in 20 Division I American football players (mean ± SD: age = 19.1 ± 1.1 years; height = 185.4 ± 6.7 cm; mass = 102.0 ± 22.2 kg; body fat = 14.7 ± 7.6%). 1RM squat, bench press and Olympic-style clean, IL-6, C and T were assessed at baseline (WK1), week 4 (WK4), week 6 (WK6) along with psychological status (PS) to determine affective state. RESULTS: 1RM (bench press: 121.6 ± 36.3 kg vs. 127.4 ± 35.9 kg, squat: 187.2 ± 30.2 kg, 190.9 ± 28.1 kg, clean: 116.8 ± 14.6 kg, vs. 119.2 ± 14.5 kg), IL-6 (1.42 ± 1.77 pg/mL vs. 5.60 ± 12.57 pg/mL) and C (2.57 ± 2.46 nmol/L vs. 5.33 ± 4.94) increased signihcantly from WK1 to WK6 (p < .05), fT decreased signihcantly (417.44 ± 83.63 pmol/Lvs. 341.10 ± 87.79 pmol/L) from WK1 to WK6 (p < .05). PS was minimally affected during the study. Signihcant biomarker changes were detected, but no OVT was induced (i.e. performance improved). CONCLUSION: Therefore, directional changes in these biomarkers may not be sufficiently reflective of OVT in RT programs.

Stress reactivity and personality in extreme sport athletes: The psychobiology of BASE jumpers.

This is the first report of the psychobiology of stress in BASE jumpers, one of the most dangerous forms of extreme sport. We tested the hypotheses that indicators of emotional style (temperament) predict salivary cortisol reactivity, whereas indicators of intentional goal-setting (persistence and character) predict salivary alpha-amylase reactivity during BASE jumping. Ninety-eight subjects completed the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) the day before the jump, and 77 also gave salivary samples at baseline, pre-jump on the bridge over the New River Gorge, and post-jump upon landing. Overall BASE jumpers are highly resilient individuals who are highly self-directed, persistent, and risk-taking, but they are heterogeneous in their motives and stress reactivity in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) stress system (cortisol reactivity) and the sympathetic arousal system (alpha-amylase reactivity). Three classes of jumpers were identified using latent class analysis based on their personality profiles, prior jumping experience, and levels of cortisol and alpha-amylase at all three time points. "Masterful" jumpers (class 1) had a strong sense of self-directedness and mastery, extensive prior experience, and had little alpha-amylase reactivity and average cortisol reactivity. "Trustful" jumpers (class 2) were highly cooperative and trustful individuals who had little cortisol reactivity coincident with the social support they experienced prior to jumping. "Courageous" jumpers (class 3) were determined despite anxiety and inexperience, and they had high sympathetic reactivity but average cortisol activation. We conclude that trusting social attachment (Reward Dependence) and not jumping experience predicted low cortisol reactivity, whereas persistence (determination) and not jumping experience predicted high alpha-amylase reactivity.

Relationship between salivary and serum testosterone levels in response to different exercise intensities.

UNLABELLED: The anabolic hormone testosterone (T) continues to be researched extensively in exercise studies, with blood serum or plasma samples collected routinely. This method is considered both valid and reliable; however, the collection process can be invasive and difficult during exercise. For this reason, non-invasive sampling, such as saliva collections, is increasing in popularity. PURPOSE: To investigate the association between salivary and serum T before and after various intensities of exercise to assess the validity of saliva collection for T measurement. METHODS: 12 endurance-trained males (Mean ± SD; VOVO2max 58.2 ± 6.4 ml/kg/min, 22 ± 4.6 years, BMI 21.6 ± 1.9) completed three 30-minute exercise (cycling) sessions at 40% (Low), 60% (Moderate), and 80% (High) of VO2max as well as a 30-minute resting Control session on four separate days. Salivary (s) and serum (S) samples were assessed for T prior to (Pre), immediately post (Post), and 30 minutes post (30 Min Post) each session. RESULTS: Low exercise caused a significant (p<0.05) increase in ST, but not sT, while Moderate and High exercise caused an increase (p<0.01) in both ST and sT. A strong positive correlation (Spearman [rs]) existed between sT and ST in the Moderate (rs = 0.912 [p<0.001; n=36; 12 subjects x 3 measurement times-samples]), and High (rs = 0.898 [p<0.001]) sessions, but not as strong for the Low (rs = 0.517 [p=0.001]) session. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that sT and ST levels are strongly associated to exercise. However, the exercise-related sT and ST responses-changes were more closely aligned at Moderate and High intensities, suggesting a greater validity between the saliva and serum responses to higher intensity exercise.