WNT5A induces castration-resistant prostate cancer via CCL2 and tumour-infiltrating macrophages.

BACKGROUND: Although the standard treatment for the patients with recurrent and metastatic prostate cancer (CaP) is androgen deprivation therapy, castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) eventually emerges. Our previous report indicated that bone morphogenetic protein 6 (BMP6) induced CRPC via tumour-infiltrating macrophages. In a separate line of study, we have observed that the WNT5A/BMP6 loop in CaP bone metastasis mediates resistance to androgen deprivation in tissue culture. Simultaneously, we have reported that BMP6 induced castration resistance in CaP cells via tumour-infiltrating macrophages. Therefore, our present study aims to investigate the mechanism of WNT5A and its interaction with macrophages on CRPC. METHODS: Doxycycline inducible WNT5A overexpression prostate cancer cell line was used for detailed mechanical study. RESULTS: WNT5A was associated with increased expression of chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) in the human CaP cell line, LNCaP. Mechanistically, this induction of CCL2 by WNT5A is likely to be mediated via the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signalling pathway. Our in vivo experiments demonstrated that the overexpression of WNT5A in LNCaP cells promoted castration resistance. Conversely, this resistance was inhibited with the removal of macrophages via clodronate liposomes. When patient-derived CaP LuCaP xenografts were analysed, high levels of WNT5A were correlated with increased levels of CCL2 and BMP6. In addition, higher levels of CCL2 and BMP6 were more commonly observed in intra-femoral transplanted tumours as compared to subcutaneous-transplanted tumours in the patient-derived PCSD1 bone-niche model. CONCLUSIONS: These findings collectively suggest that WNT5A may be a key gene that induces CRPC in the bone niche by recruiting and regulating macrophages through CCL2 and BMP6, respectively.

Intracrine androgen biosynthesis in renal cell carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is one of the most lethal genitourinary cancers. The presence of androgen receptor (AR) in RCC has recently been shown to be associated with higher tumour stage irrespective of gender. Because the clinical context of androgens in female RCC patients is similar to that of prostate cancer patients undergoing androgen-deprivation therapy, mechanisms underlying the emergence of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) may be at play in AR-positive RCC cells. Therefore, we hypothesized that AR-positive RCC has intratumoral steroidogenesis and that anti-androgen therapy may result in tumour suppression. METHODS: Mice were injected with an AR-positive RCC cell line. When tumours became palpable, surgical castration was performed and tumour volume was measured. Using ELISA, the levels of intracellular testosterone and dihydrotesterone were measured in AR-positive human RCC cell lines. Lastly, male mice containing xenografts were treated with enzalutamide or abiraterone acetate (AA) for 3 weeks to measure tumour volume. RESULTS: We first observed in vivo that castration retards the growth of AR-positive RCC tumour xenograft in mice. Next, AR-positive human RCC cell lines and tissues were found to have elevated levels of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone and express key enzymes required for intracellular androgen biosynthesis. A mouse xenograft study with AR-positive RCC cell line using the commonly used anti-androgen therapies showed significant tumour suppression (P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Intracrine androgen biosynthesis is a potential source of androgen in AR-positive RCC and that the androgen signaling axis is a potential target of intervention in RCC.

Off-Target Effect of Sildenafil on Postsurgical Erectile Dysfunction: Alternate Pathways and Localized Delivery System.

INTRODUCTION: There is no consensus on the best oral phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor (PDE5I) for patients undergoing penile rehabilitation after surgical nerve injury. AIM: To determine the mechanism of PDE5I on cultured neuronal cells and the effectiveness of local drug delivery using nanospheres (NSPs) to sites of nerve injury in a rat model of bilateral cavernous nerve injury (BCNI). METHODS: The effects of sildenafil, tadalafil, and vardenafil on cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cyclic guanosine monophosphate, and cell survival after exposure to hypoxia and H2O2 were measured in PC12, SH-SY5Y, and NTERA-2 (NT2) cell cultures. The effects of phosphodiesterase type 4 inhibitor (PDE4I) and PDE5I on neuronal cell survival were evaluated. Male rats underwent BCNI and were untreated (BCNI), immediately treated with application of empty NSPs (BCNI + NSP), NSPs containing sildenafil (Sild + NSP), or NSPs containing rolipram (Rol + NSP). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Viability of neuronal cells was measured. Intracavernous pressure changes after cavernous nerve electrostimulation and expression of neurofilament, nitric oxide synthase, and actin in mid-shaft of penis were analyzed 14 days after injury. RESULTS: Sildenafil and rolipram significantly decreased cell death after exposure to H2O2 and hypoxia in PC12, SH-SY5Y, and NT2 cells. PC12 cells did not express PDE5 and knockdown of PDE4 significantly increased cell viability in PC12, SH-SY5Y, and NT2 cells exposed to hypoxia. The ratio of intracavernous pressure to mean arterial pressure and expression of penile neurofilament, nitric oxide synthase, and actin were significantly higher in the Sild + NSP and Rol + NSP groups than in the BCNI and BCNI + NSP groups. Limitations included analysis in only two PDE families using only a single dose. CONCLUSION: Sildenafil showed the most profound neuroprotective effect compared with tadalafil and vardenafil. Sildenafil- or rolipram-loaded NSP delivery to the site of nerve injury prevented erectile dysfunction and led to increased neurofilament, nitric oxide synthase, smooth muscle content in rat penile tissue after BCNI.

Increased Expression of Androgen Receptor mRNA in Human Renal Cell Carcinoma Cells is Associated with Poor Prognosis in Patients with Localized Renal Cell Carcinoma.

PURPOSE: The role of androgen receptor in renal cell carcinoma is not well understood. In this study the correlation between androgen receptor mRNA expression and clinicopathological features in patients with localized renal cell carcinoma was investigated. Additionally, human renal cell carcinoma cell lines were examined for the presence and effect of androgen receptor. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Androgen receptor mRNA expression was evaluated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in 115 tumor samples from patients with primary pathological stage T1 or T2 (pT1/pT2) renal cell carcinoma and 57 specimens of corresponding normal kidney tissue. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and Western blot were done to examine the expression of androgen receptor in human renal cell carcinoma cell lines. Effects on cellular proliferation were investigated after activating and blocking androgen signaling in tissue culture. RESULTS: Androgen receptor mRNA expression levels were significantly higher in patients with pT2 tumors than in those with pT1 tumors (p = 0.011). Kaplan-Meier estimates revealed significant differences in time to progression and cancer specific survival between low and high androgen receptor mRNA expression groups regardless of gender. Multivariate Cox regression analysis demonstrated that the level of androgen receptor expression was an independent predictor of cancer specific survival (HR 15.546, 95% CI 1.320-183.131, p = 0.029). In tissue culture treatment with dihydrotestosterone caused proliferation in androgen receptor positive cell lines while enzalutamide resulted in reduced cell viability in a dose dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with localized renal cell carcinoma the androgen receptor mRNA expression level is associated with prognosis. In addition, cell culture data suggest that enzalutamide may have an effect in limiting the growth of androgen receptor positive renal cell carcinoma.

Mechanism of pro-tumorigenic effect of BMP-6: neovascularization involving tumor-associated macrophages and IL-1a.

INTRODUCTION. Overexpression of bone morphogenetic protein-6 (BMP-6) has been reported in human prostate cancer tissues. Previously we have demonstrated that BMP-6 enhances prostate cancer growth in mice and not in tissue culture. Herein, we have investigated the mechanism of BMP-6's pro-tumorigenic effect in prostate cancer. METHODS. Tramp C2 murine and LNCaP human prostate cancer cell lines were co-cultured with RAW 264.7 and THP-1 cells, respectively. IL-1a knockout mice were used to confirm the role of BMP-6/IL-1a loop in vivo. Lastly, conditional macrophage null mice cd11b-DTR was used. RESULTS. The results demonstrated that BMP-6 induced the expression of IL-1a in macrophages via a cross-talk between NF-kB1 p50 and Smad1. When endothelial cells were treated with conditioned media harvested from macrophages incubated with BMP-6, tube formation was detected. In the presence of IL-1a neutralizing antibody, endothelial tube formation was blocked. In vivo, tumor growth and neovascularization decreased significantly when BMP-6 was expressed in IL-1a knockout and conditional macrophage-null mice. CONCLUSIONS. Prostate cancer-derived BMP-6 stimulates tumor-associated macrophages to produce IL-1a through a crosstalk between Smad1 and NF-kB1; IL-1a, in turn, promotes angiogenesis and prostate cancer growth.

DHCR24 is an independent predictor of progression in patients with non-muscle-invasive urothelial carcinoma, and its functional role is involved in the aggressive properties of urothelial carcinoma cells.

PURPOSE: The DHCR24 gene that encodes 3b-hydroxysterol Δ24-reductase, an oxidoreductase involved in cholesterol biosynthesis, has been identified as a progression-related gene based on the quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) gene signature. Here, the functional role of DHCR24 and its clinical relevance in non-muscle-invasive urothelial carcinoma (NMIUC) were investigated. METHODS: Primary NMIUC tissue specimens (n = 162) were analyzed by qPCR. Immunohistochemical staining was also performed on 63 subsets of NMIUC tissues. The present study was also undertaken in order to verify the effect of DHCR24 on human urothelial carcinoma cells. RESULTS: The mRNA expression levels of DHCR24 were significantly higher for patients in with higher grades of tumors than for those with lower grades of tumors (P = 0.003). Kaplan-Meier estimates revealed significant differences in the time to progression between low- and high-mRNA expression groups (log-rank test, P < 0.001). Multivariate Cox regression analysis revealed that the level of DHCR24 expression is an independent predictor of progression (hazard ratio, 5.464; 95 % confidence interval, 1.746-17.099; P = 0.004). The results of immunohistochemical staining were generally concordant with mRNA expression levels. Enforced expression of DHCR24 caused proliferation, adhesion, and migration, while DHCR24 loss resulted in slower proliferation and a reduction in cell viabilities compared with control cells. CONCLUSIONS: DHCR24 was found to be closely associated with progression among patients with NMIUC and showed aggressive properties in human UC cells.

Decreased selenium-binding protein 1 mRNA expression is associated with poor prognosis in renal cell carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: The anticancer effects of selenium may be mediated by selenium-binding proteins, such as SELENBP1. The association between SELENBP1 expression levels and clinicopathologic parameters was assessed in renal cell carcinoma (RCC). METHODS: SELENBP1 mRNA expression was measured with real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) in 139 specimens of primary RCC and 59 specimens of donor-matched normal-appearing kidney tissues. The prognostic effect of SELENBP1 levels was evaluated with Kaplan-Meier and multivariate Cox regression analyses. RESULTS: SELENBP1 mRNA levels were significantly lower in tumor tissues than in matched normal kidney tissues (P < 0.001) and significantly inversely correlated with pathologic (T-stage and Fuhrman grade) and prognostic variables (progression and cancer-specific death). Kaplan-Meier estimates showed that low SELENBP1 expression was significantly correlated with cancer-specific death (log-rank test, P = 0.014), and a multivariate Cox regression model revealed that SELENBP1 expression was an independent predictor of cancer-specific death (HR, 0.111; P = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: SELENBP1 might play a role in tumor suppression and could be a useful prognostic factor in RCC.

Bone morphogenetic protein-6 induces castration resistance in prostate cancer cells through tumor infiltrating macrophages.

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) is a pleiotropic growth factor that has been implicated in inflammation and prostate cancer (CaP) progression. We investigated the potential role of BMP-6 in the context of macrophages and castration-resistant prostate cancer. When the androgen-responsive murine (Tramp-C1 and PTENCaP8) and human (LNCaP) CaP cell lines were cocultured with macrophages in the presence of dihydrotestosterone, BMP-6 increased androgen-responsive promoter activity and cell count significantly. Subsequent studies revealed that BMP-6 increased the expression level of androgen receptor (AR) mRNA and protein in CaP cell lines only in the presence of macrophages. Simultaneously, the AR antagonists bicalutamide and MDV3100 partially or completely blocked BMP-6-induced macrophage-mediated androgen hypersensitivity in CaP cells. Abolishing interleukin-6 signaling with neutralizing antibody in CaP/macrophage cocultures inhibited the BMP-6-mediated AR upregulation in CaP cells. Using Tramp-C1 and PTENCaP8 cells with a tetracycline-inducible expression of BMP-6, the induction of BMP-6 in vivo resulted in a significant resistance to castration. However, this resistance was blocked after the removal of macrophages with clodronate liposomes. Taken together, these results show that BMP-6 induces castration resistance by increasing the expression of AR through macrophage-derived interleukin-6.

CREBZF, a novel Smad8-binding protein.

Smads are the secondary messengers of the transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) signaling pathway. TGF-ß receptors phosphorylate the Receptor Smads (R-Smads) upon ligand binding; activated R-Smads translocate to the nucleus and function as transcription factors. Among the R-Smads, Smads 1, 5, and 8 mainly mediate signals in the bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) pathways, while Smads 2/3 mediate TGF-ß signaling. The regulation of Smads in the TGF-ß signal pathway has been well defined, but the relationship of Smads 1, 5, and 8 to the BMP pathways has been relatively understudied. To understand the specific regulation of BMP mediating Smads, we performed yeast two-hybrid screening using the Mad homology 2(MH2) domain of Smad8 as bait. In this screening, novel Smad-binding protein, CREBZF-a basic region-leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factor-was identified. The interaction of CREBZF and Smads 1, 5, and 8 was confirmed by immunoprecipitation in a human prostate cancer cell line. Overexpression of CREBZF inhibited the promoter activity of BMP response element and abolished the cell growth inhibition induced by BMP-6. Thus, CREBZF inhibits the function of BMP-6 by interacting with Smads. The identification of this novel Smads-binding protein, among others will help us understand the modulation of BMP-signaling pathways.

Induction of interleukin-6 expression by bone morphogenetic protein-6 in macrophages requires both SMAD and p38 signaling pathways.

Unlike the prototype transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß), bone morphogenetic protein-6 (BMP-6) activates macrophages. Here, we report that BMP-6 induces the expression of IL-6 in macrophages. Using overexpression and knockdown experiments, we demonstrate that BMP receptor type II and activin-like kinase-2 are necessary for IL-6 induction by BMP-6. At the intracellular level, both Smad and p38 signaling pathways are required for the induction of IL-6. The cross-talk between the two pathways occurs at the level of transcription factor GATA4 and Smad 1/4. These results, taken together, demonstrate a novel BMP-6 signaling mechanism in which both the Smad and non-Smad pathways directly interact to activate the transcription of a target gene.

Macrophages induce neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate cancer cells via BMP6-IL6 Loop.

BACKGROUND: Frequently associated with hormone refractory prostate cancer are neuroendocrine cells. Because these cells do not express androgen receptors and are castration-resistant, further understanding the mechanism of neuroendocrine differentiation (NED) of prostate cancer cells may yield novel intervention methods in hormone refractory prostate cancer. In this regard, the present study investigated the effect of macrophages on prostate cancer NED. METHODS: THP-1 and LNCaP or RAW264.7 and TRAMP-C2 cell line co-cultures were used to investigate NED-macrophage interactions. Also interleukin-6 (IL-6) knockout mice and macrophage-depleted mice were used to test NED in vivo. RESULTS: We found that co-culturing with THP-1 human monocytic cell line and RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cell line led to the NED of LNCaP and TRAMP-C2 prostate cancer cells, respectively. Specifically, the conditioned media of activated macrophages stimulated the expression of parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP), a marker of NED, in both LNCaP and TRAMP-C2 cells. Mechanistically, bone morphogenetic protein-6 (BMP-6) derived from prostate cancer cells increased the expression of IL-6 in macrophages. Subsequently, IL-6 induced the NED of prostate cancer cells. When this feedback loop was disrupted with neutralizing antibodies to either BMP-6 or IL-6, NED was no longer observed. In human prostate cancer tissues, neuroendocrine cells frequently co-localized with macrophages and BMP-6. In mice, the removal of IL-6 or macrophages blocked the BMP-6-induced NED of prostate cancer cells. CONCLUSIONS: Therefore, we propose that BMP-6 secreted by prostate cancer cells induces IL-6 expression in macrophages; IL-6, in turn, stimulates the NED of prostate cancer cells.

Renoprotective antioxidant effect of alagebrium in experimental diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Despite the beneficial effects of alagebrium (ALA), a putative advanced glycation end-product (AGE) breaker, on diabetic nephropathy, its renoprotective mechanisms are incompletely understood. Since oxidative stress exacerbates diabetic renal injury through interaction with AGE, the present study examined the antioxidative property of ALA in db/db mice, mesangial cells cultured under high glucose or H(2)O(2) and a test tube. METHODS: ALA (2 mg/kg/day) was administered intraperitoneally for 12 weeks to 8-week-old db/m and db/db (D(ALA)E) mice or for 4 weeks to 16-week-old db/db mice (D(ALA)L). Oxidative stress markers (nitrotyrosine accumulation, expression and translocation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase subunits, cellular DCF-DA fluorescence) together with urinary albumin excretion and histological changes including mesangial expansion were measured. The concentration of H(2)O(2) in the presence and absence of ALA was measured by iodometric analysis in a test tube. RESULTS: ALA significantly reduced not only urinary albumin excretion and renal pathological changes but also accumulation of pentosidine and nitrotyrosine and expression of NADPH oxidase subunits in db/db mice regardless of treatment protocol. In mesangial cells, ALA effectively prevented not only high glucose- but also H(2)O(2)-induced membrane translocation of NADPH oxidase subunit (p47 phox, p67 phox and rac1) and protein kinase C isoform (α, ßI and ßII) and Nox4 messenger RNA expression concomitant with cellular reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, ALA directly decreased H(2)O(2) in a test tube. CONCLUSION: ALA has both direct and indirect antioxidant effects that may play important roles in ALA's renoprotective effect in diabetic kidneys.

RNA-seq profile of African American men with a clinically localized prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Prostate cancer in African American (AA) men has a poor prognosis. This study aimed to identify potential genetic risk factors for prostate cancer in AA men. METHODS: We used prostate cancer tissue from 61 patients who underwent radical prostatectomy. We compared somatic gene expression in Caucasian (CA) and AA men using RNA sequencing. RESULTS: By comparing the RNA-seq data obtained from prostate cancer tissue between AA and CA men, this study showed a significant difference in expression levels of 45 genes. Pathway analysis of 45 genes using Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomesenrichment analysis revealed a neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction signal. In addition, the results of the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis showed pathways involved sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling. Furthermore, validating 45 genes in the The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) Provisional cohort, cholinergic receptor muscarinic 3 expression level was significantly lower in AA than in CA men, and the results showed a significantly higher rate of biochemical recurrence in patients with low expression. CONCLUSIONS: We identified genetic differences of clinically localized prostate cancer in AAs and CAs by RNA sequencing.

Transcription factor 4 expression in circulating tumor cells from castration-resistant prostate cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Neuroendocrine differentiation is partly caused by antiandrogen therapy and exhibits an androgen receptor-independent growth mechanism. We hypothesized that the expression of transcription factor 4, an inducer of neuroendocrine differentiation, in circulating tumor cells is related to drug resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer. CASE PRESENTATION: We evaluate the messenger ribonucleic acid expression of transcription factor 4 in circulating tumor cells from 17 patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer and compared these levels between patients receiving antiandrogen therapies and those who were resistant to antiandrogen therapies and receiving chemotherapies. The expression of transcription factor 4 in circulating tumor cells was significantly higher among patients receiving chemotherapies. CONCLUSION: This study shows that transcription factor 4 is higher in the group of patients who were judged by their physicians to need chemotherapy treatment.

Effects of MTX-23, a Novel PROTAC of Androgen Receptor Splice Variant-7 and Androgen Receptor, on CRPC Resistant to Second-Line Antiandrogen Therapy.

Although second-line antiandrogen therapy (SAT) is the standard of care in men with castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), resistance inevitably occurs. One major proposed mechanism of resistance to SAT involves the emergence of androgen receptor (AR) splice variant-7, AR-V7. Recently, we developed MTX-23 using the principle of proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) to target both AR-V7 and AR-full length (AR-FL). MTX-23 has been designed to simultaneously bind AR's DNA binding domain (DBD) and the Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) E3 ubiquitin ligase. Immunoblots demonstrated that MTX-23's degradation concentration 50% (DC50) for AR-V7 and AR-FL was 0.37 and 2 µmol/L, respectively. Further studies revealed that MTX-23 inhibited prostate cancer cellular proliferation and increased apoptosis only in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cells. The antiproliferative effect of MTX-23 was partially reversed when either AR-V7 or AR-FL was overexpressed and was completely abrogated when both were overexpressed. To assess the potential therapeutic value of MTX-23, we next generated 12 human prostate cancer cell lines that are resistant to the four FDA-approved SAT agents-abiraterone, enzalutamide, apalutamide, and darolutamide. When resistant cells were treated with MTX-23, decreased cellular proliferation and reduced tumor growth were observed both in vitro and in mice. These results collectively suggest that MTX-23 is a novel PROTAC small molecule that may be effective against SAT-resistant CRPC by degrading both AR-V7 and AR-FL.

CXC Chemokine/Receptor Axis Profile and Metastasis in Prostate Cancer.

In this study, the effects of the CXC chemokine/receptor axis on lymph node and distant metastases of prostate cancer (PC) were analyzed. Further, mRNA expression data of metastatic PC were extracted from the Stand Up To Cancer-Prostate Cancer Foundation Dream Team database and differences between metastatic sites were comprehensively analyzed. CXC chemokine/receptor mRNA expression data of primary PC included in the Cancer Genome Atlas were used to analyze the relationships of CXC chemokine/receptor expression with lymph node metastasis and cancer progression. In metastatic PC, significantly higher expression of ELR+ CXC chemokines/receptors and significantly lower expression of ELR- CXC chemokines/receptors were observed in bone metastases relative to lymph node metastases. In primary PC, significantly higher ELR- CXC chemokine/receptor expression and significantly lower ELR+ CXC chemokine/receptor expression were observed in patients with lymph node metastasis relative to those without. Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified CXCL10 expression as an independent predictor of lymph node metastasis. Furthermore, the log-rank test results revealed that co-expression of CXCL10/CXCR3 was associated with postoperative recurrence. These findings demonstrate heterogeneous expression of CXC chemokine/receptor genes in primary PC as well as differences in expression patterns according to the metastatic site.

Effect of bone morphogenetic protein-6 on macrophages.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are members of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta superfamily which regulates bone formation, haematopoiesis and development. While TGF-beta is known to be a negative regulator of the immune system, the effect of BMPs on the immune system is largely unknown. Herein, the effect of BMP-6 on the innate immune system was investigated using the murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7. BMP-6 altered cellular morphology, inhibited cellular proliferation, increased the fraction of subG(1) phase cells, and decreased the fraction of cells in the S and G(2)M phases, without changing the percentage of apoptotic cells. In addition, BMP-6 induced expression of pro-inflammatory inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the cytokine tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis demonstrated the expression of all three known type II BMP receptors [BMP-RII, activin (Act)-RIIA and Act-RIIB] and two of the three known type I receptors [activin receptor-like kinase 2 (ALK2) and ALK3]. Over-expression as well as knock-down studies using short hairpin RNA (shRNA) demonstrated that BMP-RII, ALK2 and ALK3 are the functional BMP-6 receptors in macrophages. Finally, the effect of BMP-6 was confirmed in murine peritoneal macrophages and the THP-1 human monocyte cell line. Taken together, these results demonstrate that BMP-6 regulates the proliferation and gene expression profile of macrophages.

Effect of dominant negative transforming growth factor-beta receptor type II on cytotoxic activity of RAW 264.7, a murine macrophage cell line.

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) is a potent suppressor of the immune system. In the present study, we investigated the effect of TGF-beta resistance on a murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7, by overexpressing a dominant negative TGF-beta receptor type II (TbetaRIIDN) construct. As expected, TbetaRIIDN-expressing RAW cells, designated as RAW-TbetaRIIDN, were resistant to TGF-beta signaling. When these cells were cocultured with the murine renal cell carcinoma cell line, Renca, a dramatic increase in apoptosis of Renca cells was observed. Simultaneously, elevated levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in association with IFN-gamma were detected in RAW-TbetaRIIDN cells. When the effects of TNF-alpha and iNOS were neutralized through the use of neutralizing antibody and N(G)-methyl-L-arginine, respectively, the enhanced cytotoxicity of TbetaRIIDN-RAW cells was partially reversed. Taken together, these results show that TGF-beta-resistant RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells have increased cytotoxic activity that is in part mediated by iNOS and TNF-alpha.

Immune reaction by cytoreductive prostatectomy.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common non-cutaneous cancer among men and the second leading cause of male cancer deaths in the United States. With no effective cure for advanced disease, the survival rates of castration-resistant disease and metastatic disease remains poor. Treatment via hormonal manipulation, immunotherapy, and chemotherapy remain marginally effective, indicating the need for novel treatment strategies. Cytoreductive prostatectomy (CRP) has grown as a treatment modality for metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) and an emerging body of literature has demonstrated its survival benefits. In this review, we hope to further explore immunologic changes after CRP and the resultant effects on oncologic outcomes. Conclusively, the data and technical considerations of CRS evolve, CRS may continue to expand treat various type of metastatic cancer. Still, there are little reports about immunological changed after CRP. However, based on technical improvement, CRP and combinational immunotherapy are developing treatments of metastatic disease.

TCF4 induces enzalutamide resistance via neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer.

In treating patients with castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), enzalutamide, the second-generation androgen receptor (AR) antagonist, is an accepted standard of care. However, clinical benefits are limited to a median time of 4.8 months because resistance inevitably emerges. To determine the mechanism of treatment resistance, we carried out a RNA sequence analysis and found increased expression levels of neuroendocrine markers in the enzalutamide-resistant LNCaP human prostate cancer (CaP) cell line when compared to the parental cell line. Subsequent studies demonstrated that Transcription Factor-4 (TCF4), a transcription factor implicated in WNT signaling, mediated neuroendocrine differentiation (NED) in response to enzalutamide treatment and was elevated in the enzalutamide-resistant LNCaP. In addition, we observed that PTHrP mediated enzalutamide resistance in tissue culture and inducible TCF4 overexpression resulted in enzalutamide-resistance in a mouse xenograft model. Finally, small molecule inhibitors of TCF4 or PTHrP partially reversed enzalutamide resistance in CaP cells. When tissues obtained from men who died of metastatic CaP were examined, a positive correlation was found between the expression levels of TCF4 and PTHrP. Taken together, the current results indicate that TCF4 induces enzalutamide resistance via NED in CaP.