Biomechanical energetics of terrestrial locomotion in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus).

Pinnipedia, an order of semi-aquatic marine mammals, adapted a body design that allows for efficient aquatic locomotion but limited terrestrial locomotion. Otariids, like the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), have enlarged forelimbs and can bring their hindlimbs under the body to locomote quadrupedally on land, but phocids (true seals) have reduced forelimbs and are unable to bring their hindlimbs beneath them during terrestrial locomotion. Because of these differences, phocids are expected to have greater energetic costs when moving on land compared with otariids. The mechanical costs of transport (COT) and power outputs of terrestrial locomotion were first obtained from one male and two female adult California sea lions through video recording locomotion sequences across a level runway. The center of mass, along with six other anatomical points, were digitized to obtain variables such as velocity (V), amplitude of heave (A) and the frequency (f) of oscillations during the locomotion cycle. These variables represent the principal parameters of a biomechanical model that computes the power output of individuals. The three California sea lions in this study averaged a power output of 112.04 W and a COT of 0.63 J kg-1 m-1. This footage was compared against video footage previously recorded of three phocid species (harbor seal, gray seal and northern elephant seal). Power output and mechanical COT were compared for all four pinniped species by tracking the animals' center of mass. The quadrupedal gait of sea lions showed lower vertical displacements of the center of mass, and higher velocities compared with the terrestrial gait of phocids. Northern elephant seals, gray seals and harbor seals showed significantly higher COT and power outputs than the sea lions. California sea lions locomote with lower energetic costs, and thus higher efficiency compared with phocids, proving that they are a mechanically intermediate species on land between terrestrial mammals and phocids. This study provides novel information on the mechanical energy exerted by pinnipeds, particularly California sea lions, to then be used in future research to better understand the limitations of these aquatic mammals.

The role of California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) hindflippers as aquatic control surfaces for maneuverability.

California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) are a highly maneuverable species of marine mammal. During uninterrupted, rectilinear swimming, sea lions oscillate their foreflippers to propel themselves forward without aid from the collapsed hindflippers, which are passively trailed. During maneuvers such as turning and leaping (porpoising), the hindflippers are spread into a delta-wing configuration. There is little information defining the role of otarrid hindflippers as aquatic control surfaces. To examine Z. californianus hindflippers during maneuvering, trained sea lions were video recorded underwater through viewing windows performing porpoising behaviors and banking turns. Porpoising by a trained sea lion was compared with sea lions executing the maneuver in the wild. Anatomical points of reference (ankle and hindflipper tip) were digitized from videos to analyze various performance metrics and define the use of the hindflippers. During a porpoising bout, the hindflippers were considered to generate lift when surfacing with a mean angle of attack of 14.6±6.3 deg. However, while performing banked 180 deg turns, the mean angle of attack of the hindflippers was 28.3±7.3 deg, and greater by another 8-12 deg for the maximum 20% of cases. The delta-wing morphology of the hindflippers may be advantageous at high angles of attack to prevent stalling during high-performance maneuvers. Lift generated by the delta-shaped hindflippers, in concert with their position far from the center of gravity, would make these appendages effective aquatic control surfaces for executing rapid turning maneuvers.

Wake structures behind a swimming robotic lamprey with a passively flexible tail.

A robotic lamprey, based on the silver lamprey, Ichthyomyzon unicuspis, was used to investigate the influence of passive tail flexibility on the wake structure and thrust production during anguilliform swimming. A programmable microcomputer actuated 11 servomotors that produce a traveling wave along the length of the lamprey body. The waveform was based on kinematic studies of living lamprey, and the shape of the tail was taken from a computer tomography scan of the silver lamprey. The tail was constructed of flexible PVC gel, and nylon inserts were used to change its degree of flexibility. Particle image velocimetry measurements using three different levels of passive flexibility show that the large-scale structure of the wake is dominated by the formation of two pairs of vortices per shedding cycle, as seen in the case of a tail that flexed actively according to a pre-defined kinematic pattern, and did not bend in response to fluid forces. When the tail is passively flexible, however, the large structures are composed of a number of smaller vortices, and the wake loses coherence as the degree of flexibility increases. Momentum balance calculations indicate that, at a given tailbeat frequency, increasing the tail flexibility yields less net force, but changing the cycle frequency to match the resonant frequency of the tail increases the force production.

Flowfields produced by a robotic sea lion foreflipper starting from rest.

Sea lions swim using primarily their foreflippers, which is uncommon among aquatic mammals. While a significant body of literature exists which investigates the hydrodynamics of body-caudal swimming, relatively little research has looked at sea lion propulsion. In this work, particle imaging velocimetry is used to observe the flow around a robotic model sea lion flipper. The model flipper was cast in silicone from a high-resolution scan of a sample sea lion foreflipper. The model flipper was actuated at the root, and its motion was controlled by a programmable servomotor. It was observed that the thrust-producing clapping motion of the flipper entrained significant fluid momentum on the suction side of the flipper, which developed into a shed vortex and contributed to downstream momentum (and therefore thrust). Rotating the robotic flipper more quickly produced greater downstream jet velocities, but at a lower conversion of rotational velocity, suggesting that this mechanism of propulsion can be optimized based on the system needs.

A synthetic cervix model and the impact of softness on cerclage integrity.

Cervical insufficiency is a medical condition of pregnancy which causes the cervix to soften, shorten and dilate before full term, typically between 18 and 22 weeks of gestation, such that a preterm birth occurs. It is a common cause of second trimester pregnancy loss. Before meeting the diagnostic criteria, a patient that experiences early cervical remodelling or the development of a short cervix may receive surgical intervention. Once detected, the typical treatment is a cerclage procedure (a purse string suture to close the cervix) and progesterone medication. There are conflicting studies on the efficacy of the cerclage procedure, with conclusions drawn from clinical evidence as opposed to mechanical properties. The purpose of this study is to understand the mechanical limitations of the cerclage procedure. Working with physicians at George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, we created generalized three dimensional models of the cervix from ultrasound images. To fabricate the synthetic cervices, we used a silicone rubber to mimic the qualitative feel of the cervix according to collaborating physicians. Using this qualitative information, we performed material testing for quantitative analysis. The synthetic cervices were then sutured using clinical techniques. The maximum force required for the synthetic tissue to rupture due to the cerclage stitch was recorded. The impact of material softness on the integrity of the cerclage is investigated.

A Robotic Platform to Study the Foreflipper of the California Sea Lion.

The California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), is an agile and powerful swimmer. Unlike many successful swimmers (dolphins, tuna), they generate most of their thrust with their large foreflippers. This protocol describes a robotic platform designed to study the hydrodynamic performance of the swimming California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). The robot is a model of the animal's foreflipper that is actuated by motors to replicate the motion of its propulsive stroke (the 'clap'). The kinematics of the sea lion's propulsive stroke are extracted from video data of unmarked, non-research sea lions at the Smithsonian Zoological Park (SNZ). Those data form the basis of the actuation motion of the robotic flipper presented here. The geometry of the robotic flipper is based a on high-resolution laser scan of a foreflipper of an adult female sea lion, scaled to about 60% of the full-scale flipper. The articulated model has three joints, mimicking the elbow, wrist and knuckle joint of the sea lion foreflipper. The robotic platform matches dynamics properties-Reynolds number and tip speed-of the animal when accelerating from rest. The robotic flipper can be used to determine the performance (forces and torques) and resulting flowfields.

An experimental approach to a simplified model of human birth.

This study presents a simplified experimental model of labor for the study of fetal lie and amniotic fluid properties. It mimics a ventouse (vacuum extraction) delivery to study the effect of amniotic fluid properties on force transfer to a passive fetus. The simplified vacuum delivery consists of a solid ovate spheroid being pulled from a passive, flexible spherical elastic shell filled with fluid. We compare the force necessary to remove the ovate fetus in fluids of varying properties. Additionally, the fetal lie-angular deviation from maternal/fetal spinal alignment-is changed by 5° intervals and the pullout force is measured. In both the concentric ovate experiments, the force to remove the fetus changes with the properties of the fluid occupying the space between the fetus and the uterus. Increasing the fluid viscosity by 35% decreases the maximum fetal removal force by up to 52.5%. Furthermore, while the force is dominated by the elastic force of the latex uterus, the properties of the amniotic fluid can significantly decrease the total removal force. This study demonstrates that the fluid components of a birth model can significantly alter the forces associated with fetus removal. This suggests that complete studies of human parturition should be designed to include both the material and fluid systems.