Differences in bacterial taxa between treatment-naive patients with major depressive disorder and non-affected controls may be related to a proinflammatory profile.

BACKGROUND: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized by sadness and anhedonia, but also physical symptoms such as changes in appetite and weight. Gut microbiota has been hypothesized to be involved in MDD through gut-brain axis signaling. Moreover, antidepressants display antibacterial properties in the gastrointestinal tract. The aim of this study was to compare the gut microbiota and systemic inflammatory profile of young patients with MDD before and after initiation of antidepressant treatment and/or psychotherapy in comparison with a non-depressed control group (nonMDD). METHODS: Fecal and blood samples were collected at baseline and at follow-up after four and twelve weeks, respectively. Patients started treatment immediately after collection of the baseline samples. The gut microbiota was characterized by 16 S rRNA gene sequencing targeting the hypervariable V4 region. Plasma levels of 49 unique immune markers were assessed using Mesoscale. RESULTS: In total, 27 MDD patients and 32 nonMDD controls were included in the study. The gut microbiota in the baseline samples of MDD versus nonMDD participants did not differ regarding α- or ß-diversity. However, there was a higher relative abundance of the genera Ruminococcus gnavus group, and a lower relative abundance of the genera Desulfovibrio, Tyzzerella, Megamonas, Olsenella, Gordonibacter, Allisonella and Rothia in the MDD group compared to the nonMDD group. In the MDD group, there was an increase in the genera Rothia, Desulfovibrio, Gordinobacteer and Lactobacillus, while genera belonging to the Firmicutes phylum were found depleted at twelve weeks follow-up compared to baseline. In the MDD group, IL-7, IL-8 and IL-17b levels were elevated compared to the nonMDD group at baseline. Furthermore, MDI score in the MDD group was found to correlate with Bray-Curtis dissimilarity at baseline, and several inflammatory markers at both baseline and after initiation of antidepressant treatment. CONCLUSION: Several bacterial taxa differed between the MDD group and the nonMDD group at baseline and changed in relative abundance during antidepressant treatment and/or psychotherapy. The MDD group was furthermore found to have a pro-inflammatory profile compared to the nonMDD group at baseline. Further studies are required to investigate the gut microbiota and pro-inflammatory profile of patients with MDD.

A comparison of the breast milk microbiota from women diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus and women without gestational diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: Human breast milk (HBM) is a contributing factor in modulating the infant's gut microbiota, as it contains bacteria that are directly transferred to the infant during breastfeeding. It has been shown that children of women diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) have a different gut microbiota compared to children of women without GDM. Our hypothesis is therefore that women with GDM have a different HBM microbiota, which may influence the metabolic function and capacity of the child later in life. The aim of this study was to investigate whether women with GDM have a different breast milk microbiota 1-3 weeks postpartum compared to women without GDM. METHODS: In this case-control study, a total of 45 women were included: 18 women with GDM and 27 women without GDM. A milk sample was collected from each participant 1 to 3 weeks postpartum and the bacterial composition was examined by 16 S rRNA gene sequencing targeting the V4 region. RESULTS: High relative abundances of Streptococcus and Staphylococcus were present in samples from both women with and without GDM. No difference could be seen in either alpha diversity, beta diversity, or specific taxa between groups. CONCLUSION: Our results did not support the existence of a GDM-associated breast milk microbiota at 1-3 weeks postpartum. Further research is needed to fully understand the development of the gut microbiota of infants born to mothers with GDM.

Fecal calprotectin as a biomarker of intestinal inflammation in ICU patients with diarrhea - testing the pipette method against the collection pin and weighing methods.

Fecal calprotectin is an established biomarker in inflammatory bowel disease, but its role in assessment of intestinal inflammation in ICU patients is yet to be explored. ICU patients tend to acquire diarrhea, which complicates the extraction of fecal calprotectin using a collection pin for stool sampling. Pipetting is an alternative sampling method. The aim of the study was to compare the collection pin method with the pipette method for measurement of fecal calprotectin in ICU patients with diarrhea. Stool samples were collected from fecal bags used in the patients and then analyzed for calprotectin using an extraction device and a piston pipette, respectively. In addition, a validation test for the pipette method of extraction was conducted on liquid stool samples. Eleven stool samples were collected from five randomly selected ICU patients. Calprotectin was detectable in all fecal samples. On average the collection pin measured 45% lower than the pipette method with a 95% confidence interval (30 - 59%). The coefficient of variation when using the pipette method was 13% in low calprotectin concentrations and 39% in high concentrations. In conclusion, the pipette method seems to be appropriate for measuring calprotectin in liquid feces, due to practicalities and a greater precision.

Altered balance between collagen formation and degradation after successful direct-acting antiviral therapy of chronic hepatitis C.

The effect of direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy on extracellular matrix (ECM) turnover, a prominent feature of chronic hepatitis C (CHC), is unknown. ECM protein degradation and formation generate fragments reflecting the tissue turnover balance when quantified in the blood. PRO-C3 and PRO-C4 reflect type III and IV collagen formation; C3M and C4M are degradation markers of type III and IV. We aimed to assess the markers' dynamics with DAA therapy in CHC patients. Plasma PRO-C3, PRO-C4, C3M and C4M were assessed before, during and up till one year after 12-24 weeks of DAA therapy in 77 CHC patients with advanced fibrosis (n = 14) or cirrhosis (n = 63). Liver stiffness was evaluated using transient elastography. PRO-C3, C3M and C4M levels decreased significantly (P < .00001) while PRO-C4 was unchanged (P = .20) during the study period. There was a steep decrease in the PRO-C3/C3M ratio during DAA therapy and follow-up (P < .02). The PRO-C4/C4M ratio was unchanged (P > .27). The dynamics of the collagen markers behaved similarly between patients with advanced fibrosis and cirrhosis. However, the cirrhosis patients had >20% higher levels of C3M, PRO-C4 and C4M at all time points (P < .05). The collagen markers correlated with liver stiffness at baseline and follow-up.Markers of type III and IV collagen formation and degradation decreased during and after successful DAA therapy in CHC patients with advanced liver disease, and associated with disease severity. These results indicate an altered balance between collagen formation and degradation after viral clearance suggesting favourable effects on liver fibrosis.

Gut Microbiota in Bone Health and Diabetes.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) are at increased risk of developing osteopathogenesis and skeletal fragility. The role of the gut microbiota in both DM and osteopathy is not fully explored and may be involved in the pathology of both diseases. RECENT FINDINGS: Gut microbiota alterations have been observed in DM and osteopathogenic disorders as compared with healthy controls, such as significantly lower abundance of Prevotella and higher abundance of Lactobacillus, with a diminished bacterial diversity. Other overlapping gastro-intestinal features include the loss of intestinal barrier function with translocation of bacterial metabolites to the blood stream, induction of immunological deficits and changes in hormonal and endocrinal signalling, which may lead to the development of diabetic osteopathy. Signalling pathways involved in both DM and osteopathy are affected by gut bacteria and their metabolites. Future studies should focus on gut microbiota involvement in both diseases.

Time-dependent improvement of liver inflammation, fibrosis and metabolic liver function after successful direct-acting antiviral therapy of chronic hepatitis C.

Sofosbuvir-based direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy generally cures chronic hepatitis C (CHC) infections, however, the effects on the underlying liver disease and the potential rate of recovery are unclear. We aimed to investigate the effects of DAA therapy on liver inflammation, fibrosis, metabolic function and cognitive function and the time course in CHC patients with advanced liver disease. Seventy-one CHC patients with advanced liver disease were studied before, during and one year after successful sofosbuvir-based DAA therapy. Liver inflammation was assessed by plasma sCD163 and sMR levels (ELISA), fibrosis by liver stiffness (transient elastography), function by galactose elimination capacity (GEC) and cognitive performance by continuous reaction time (CRT). During DAA therapy, we observed a rapid sCD163 decline from baseline to end of treatment (6.9 vs 3.8 mg/L, P < .0001), whereas the change in sMR was more subtle (0.37 vs 0.30 mg/L, P < .0001). Liver stiffness decreased by 20% at end of treatment (17.8 vs 14.3 kPa, P < .0001), together suggesting rapid resolution of liver inflammation. One year after treatment, liver stiffness decreased by an additional 15% (P < .0001), suggestive of fibrosis regression. The GEC improved at follow-up (all: 1.74 vs 1.98 mmol/min), mainly at 12 weeks post-treatment, both in patients with cirrhosis (n = 56) and those with advanced liver fibrosis (n = 15) (P < .001). The CRT improved at one-year follow-up (1.86 vs 2.09, P = .04). In conclusion, successful DAA therapy of CHC proves beneficial in advanced liver disease, with an initial rapid resolution of liver inflammation and a subsequent gradual but steady improvement in liver fibrosis, metabolic liver function and reaction time.

Correction to: Mathematical arterialisation of peripheral venous blood gas for obtainment of arterial blood gas values: a methodological validation study in the clinical setting.

The corresponding author has identified a calculation mistake in the original publication of the article. The corrected value is given in this Correction. Under the Results section, the median (range) age of the patients in the methodological study should read 76 (26-86) years instead of 56 (26-86) years.

Mathematical arterialisation of peripheral venous blood gas for obtainment of arterial blood gas values: a methodological validation study in the clinical setting.

Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis is an essential tool in the clinical assessment of acutely ill patients. Venous to arterial conversion (v-TAC), a mathematical method, has been developed recently to convert peripheral venous blood gas (VBG) values to arterialized VBG (aVBG) values. The aim of this study was to test the validity of aVBG compared to ABG in an emergency department (ED) setting. Twenty ED patients were included in this study. ABG and three aVBG samples were collected from each patient. The aVBG samples were processed in three different ways to investigate appropriate sample handling. All VBG samples were arterialized using the v-TAC method. ABG and aVBG samples were compared using Lin's concordance correlation coefficient (CCC), Bland-Altman plots and misclassification analysis. Clinical acceptable threshold of aVBG value deviance from ABG values were ± 0.05 pH units, ± 0.88 kPa pCO2 and ± 0.88 kPa pO2. CCC revealed an agreement in pH and pCO2 parameters for both aVBG in comparison to ABG. In all aVBG samples, an overestimation of pO2 compared to ABG was observed. Bland-Altman plot revealed clinically acceptable mean difference and limits-of-agreement intervals between ABG and aVBG pH and pCO2, but not between ABG and aVBG pO2. Arterialization of VBG using v-TAC is a valid method for measuring pH and pCO2, but not for pO2. Larger clinical studies are required to evaluate the applicability of v-TAC in different patient subpopulations.

Deep sequencing of hepatitis C virus reveals genetic compartmentalization in cerebrospinal fluid from cognitively impaired patients.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) causes neuropsychiatric impairment and fatigue with recent studies suggesting HCV invasion of the central nervous system (CNS). Our previous finding that endothelial cells from the blood-brain barrier support HCV infection warrants further investigation to elucidate whether the CNS can serve as a reservoir for independent HCV evolution. METHODS: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma from six HCV-infected patients without liver disease or co-morbidities together with plasma from six healthy subjects were profiled for markers of immune activation and viral quasispecies measured by deep sequencing. Unsupervised data analyses were used to identify any associations between cytokine activation markers and clinical outcomes. RESULTS: Four of six HCV-infected patients showed significant evidence of cognitive dysfunction and fatigue. Deep sequencing revealed independent viral evolution within the CNS of two cognitively impaired patients. Principal component analysis of peripheral cytokines demonstrated that individuals without cognitive impairment clustered together while a distinct cytokine pattern emerged with patients exhibiting cognitive dysfunction and fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: Deep sequencing demonstrated unique viral variants in the CSF of two cognitively impaired patients consistent with CNS replication or sequestration. Meanwhile, compartmentalization was absent in infected patients with no neurocognitive impairment. Examination of cytokine profiles in HCV-infected patients with cognitive dysfunction revealed elevated peripheral cytokine levels resulting in a distinct cytokine profile that may be related to cognitive impairment or viral penetration into the CNS. Further studies to determine the significance of unique HCV variants within the CNS are warranted.

Reduced cerebral cortical thickness in Non-cirrhotic patients with hepatitis C.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is associated with fatigue, depression, and cognitive impairment even in the absence of severe liver fibrosis or cirrhosis. HCV has been hypothesised to cause neurodegenerative changes through low-grade neuroinflammation. Our aim was to examine whether cortical thickness (CTh) differs between chronic HCV patients and healthy controls, suggestive of cortical atrophy. In this case-control study 43 HCV patients without severe liver fibrosis, substance abuse, or comorbid HIV or hepatitis B virus infection, and 43 age and sex matched controls underwent MRI. Cortical thickness was measured using a surface based approach. Participants underwent semi-structured psychiatric interview and fatigue was assessed using the fatigue severity scale. HCV was associated with higher fatigue scores, and 58 % of HCV patients suffered from significant fatigue (p < 0.0001). Depression was observed in 16 % of patients. Areas of significantly reduced CTh were found in both left and right occipital cortex and in the left frontal lobe after correction for multiple comparisons (p < 0.05). No association between fatigue, former substance abuse, or psychotropic medication and CTh was found. No overall difference in cerebral white and grey matter volume was found. The findings support the hypothesis that HCV is associated with neurodegenerative changes.

Gynecological manifestations, histopathological findings, and schistosoma-specific polymerase chain reaction results among women with Schistosoma haematobium infection: a cross-sectional study in Madagascar.

BACKGROUND: The pathophysiology of female genital schistosomiasis (FGS) is only partially understood. This study aims to describe the histopathological findings, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) results, and gynecological manifestations of FGS in women with different intensities of Schistosoma haematobium infection. METHODS: Women aged 15-35 years living in an S. haematobium-endemic area in Madagascar underwent pelvic and colposcopic examinations. Small biopsy specimens were obtained from lesions and examined histopathologically. Schistosoma PCR was done on urine, biopsy, cervicovaginal lavage, and genital mucosal surface specimens. RESULTS: Sandy patches and rubbery papules were found in 41 of 118 women (35%). Rubbery papules reflected an intense cellular immune reaction dominated by eosinophils, epithelial erosion, and viable ova. There was a significant decrease in the prevalence of rubbery papules with age, even after adjustment for urinary ova excretion. The sandy patches with grains showed moderate cellular immune reaction and ova (viable and/or calcified). They were most prevalent in cases with low-intensity urinary S. haematobium infection. Forty-two percent of women with Schistosoma-negative urine specimens had at least 1 genital specimen test positive for Schistosoma by PCR. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate a diversity of lesions caused by S. haematobium and a dynamic evolution of the genital lesions. Schistosoma PCR may give an indication of the diagnosis.

Immunogenicity of twenty peptides representing epitopes of the hepatitis B core and surface antigens by IFN-γ response in chronic and resolved HBV.

BACKGROUND: Patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection (CHB) usually mount a modest T cell response against HBV epitopes. In order to determine immunogenic epitopes of HBV recognized by HBV-specific T cells, previous studies focused on previously confirmed HBV epitopes and assessed the T cell response by the number of HBV-specific T cells by IFN-γ ELISPOT. METHODS: We studied T cell functionality by combined in silico methods predicting HBV-specific epitopes and experimental investigations on the recognition of these epitopes. 30 chronic CHB patients and 10 patients with resolved HBV (RHB) were included in the study. We identified epitopes from the literature and by in silico analysis. These were evaluated for immunogenicity by use of synthetic peptides representing the epitopes through exposure to PBMCs from patients with CHB or RHB by IFN-γ ELISPOT. The number of IFN-γ producing cells (SFC), mean spot size (MSS) and stimulation index (SI) were recorded. RESULTS: The frequency of HBV-specific T cells producing IFN-γ after stimulation with HBV epitopes was similar in CHB and RHB patients. CHB patients had a higher MSS SI than RHB patients. Patients not carrying the HLA-A2 genotype had higher SFC SI and MSS SI. Patients with HLA-A11 had higher MSS SI compared to non- HLA-A11 allele patients. HBeAg-positive patients had a lower MSS SI, and none of the HBeAg positive patients had the HLA-A11 genotype. We found 3 immunogenic epitopes not described previously. CONCLUSION: IFN-γ ELISPOT-determined MSS is an efficient marker for T cell recognition of epitopes. This experimental measure showed the in silico analysis for epitope prediction to be a valuable tool in future studies on HLA genotypes and HBV epitopes. This way our study now points to previously unappreciated consequences of carrying the HLA-A11 allele in terms of stronger immunity to HBV.

Clinical findings in a multi-ethnic adult hepatitis B virus patient population in Denmark with emphasis on genotypic characteristics.

OBJECTIVE: Most knowledge about chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is based upon studies in high-endemic areas with one or two predominant genotype(s). The aim of the study was to describe clinical characteristics of a heterogeneous genotypic HBV patient population in a low-endemic European country. METHODS: Data from HBV patients currently followed in a Danish university hospital and affiliated regional clinics were reviewed in accordance to genotype status. RESULTS: Of 540 HBV patients, 462 (86%) were of non-Danish ethnicity originating from 43 different countries. HBV genotype was known in 37% of the patients: A (11%), B (25%), C (25%), D (37%) and E (2%). Logistic regression analysis of pre-treatment data among genotype A-D patients receiving nucleos(t)ide analogue (NA) therapy revealed a decreased HBeAg rate by age (OR = 0.93; CI: 0.89-0.97; p < 0.01) and an increased rate in genotype C patients (OR = 20.5; CI: 3.3-129; p < 0.01). Among untreated patients HBeAg rate was also significantly decreased by age (OR = 0.90 (0.85:0.95; p < 0.0001), whereas the rate was increased in both genotype B and C patients (OR = 7.5; CI: 1.8-30.5; p < 0.01 and OR = 12.2; CI: 3.2-46.6; p < 0.001, respectively). No significant variation was found in HBV DNA level in any of the two groups when adjusting for age, gender, genotype and HBeAg. Increased liver pathology prevalence was, irrespectively of treatment status, associated to age and male gender, but not to any genotype. CONCLUSION: In this study population, genotype B and C was found associated with higher HBeAg rate but not with increased liver pathology.

Need for improvements in the surveillance and management of chronic viral hepatitis in HIV patients followed in a Danish outpatient clinic.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) surveillance and management in HIV patients currently followed in an outpatient clinic at a Danish University Hospital. METHODS: Patient data, including demographic characteristics, clinical findings, and hepatitis serology, were reviewed at baseline. Patients with incomplete or non-updated serology within the last 2 y were retested in the next 6 months, and the results were reviewed again at follow-up. RESULTS: At baseline, 84% and 74% of the 574 HIV patients were found to have incomplete and/or non-updated HBV and HCV serology, respectively. At follow-up, updated HBV serology was achieved in 535 (93%) patients; 15 (3%) patients were found to have a chronic active infection and 156 (27%) had a resolved infection, whereas 65 (11%) were vaccinated against HBV and 299 (52%) were non-immune. No patients were found to have developed chronic HBV infection following HIV diagnosis (equal to 3649 patient-y). Updated HCV serology revealed that 25 (4%) had a chronic active HCV infection and 15 (3%) had a resolved HCV infection. The anti-HCV incidence rate was 0.27/100 patient-y. A liver pathology assessment had not been performed within the last 2 y in 80% of the HBV and 32% of the HCV co-infected patients. CONCLUSIONS: Hepatitis screening and assessment had been inadequately performed. New cases of chronic hepatitis seem to occur infrequently. However, a more proactive hepatitis surveillance and management strategy integrated into the overall HIV health care program is warranted.

Cannabis medicine for chronic pain.

In the last decade, patients with chronic pain have expressed increasing interest in cannabis-derived products for adjuvant therapy when treatment is deemed refractory to conventional analgesics. At present, clinical evidence to support this treatment approach appears to be sparse. Not because clinical studies as such are lacking, but rather as a result of methodological bias in relation to study design, patient populations, and treatment protocols. In this review, research in cannabis medicine for relief of chronic pain is reviewed, mainly with reference to published meta-analytic studies.

A study on the risk stratification for patients within 24 hours of admission for risk of hospital-acquired urinary tract infection using Bayesian network models.

Early identification of patients at risk of hospital-acquired urinary tract infections (HA-UTI) enables the initiation of timely targeted preventive and therapeutic strategies. Machine learning (ML) models have shown great potential for this purpose. However, existing ML models in infection control have demonstrated poor ability to support explainability, which challenges the interpretation of the result in clinical practice, limiting the adaption of the ML models into a daily clinical routine. In this study, we developed Bayesian Network (BN) models to enable explainable assessment within 24 h of admission for risk of HA-UTI. Our dataset contained 138,250 unique hospital admissions. We included data on admission details, demographics, lifestyle factors, comorbidities, vital parameters, laboratory results, and urinary catheter. Models developed from a reduced set of five features were characterized by transparency compared to models developed from a full set of 50 features. The expert-based clinical BN model over the reduced feature space showed the highest performance (area under the curve = 0.746) compared to the naïve- and tree-augmented-naïve BN models. Moreover, models developed from expert-based knowledge were characterized by enhanced explainability.

Identifying microbiome-based changes and biomarkers prior to disease development in mother and child, with a focus on gestational diabetes mellitus: protocol for the DANish Maternal and Offspring Microbiome (DANMOM) cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: The human gut microbiota is associated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), which imposes a risk of developing long-term health problems for mother and child. Most studies on GDM and microbiota have been cross-sectional, which makes it difficult to make any conclusions on causality. Furthermore, it is important to assess if a dysbiotic microbiota is passed from the mother to the child, and then being at risk of developing metabolic health problems later in life. The DANish Maternal and Offspring Microbiome study aims to identify gut microbiota-related factors involved in metabolic dysfunction in women with GDM and their offspring. Importantly, the study design allows for early detection of biological changes associated with later development of metabolic disease. This could provide us with unique tools to support early diagnosis or implement preventative measures. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Pregnant women are included in the study after the 11-14 weeks' prenatal ultrasound scan and followed throughout pregnancy with enrolment of the offspring at birth. 202 women and 112 children have been included from North Denmark Regional Hospital and Aalborg University Hospital in Denmark. Mother and child are followed until the children reach the age of 5 years. From the mother, we collect faeces, urine, blood, saliva, vaginal fluid and breast milk samples, in addition to faeces and a blood sample from the child. Microbiota composition in biological samples will be analysed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and compared with demographic and clinical data from medical charts, registers and questionnaires. Sample and data collection will continue until July 2028. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study protocol has been approved by the North Denmark Region Committee on Health Research Ethics (N20190007). Written informed consent is obtained from all participants prior to study participation. Study results will be published in international peer-reviewed journals and presented at international conferences. The results will also be presented to the funders of the study and study participants.

Naïve Inflammatory Proteome Profiles of Glucocorticoid Responsive Polymyalgia Rheumatica and Rheumatic Arthritis Patients-Links to Triggers and Proteomic Manifestations.

Polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) is an inflammatory disorder of unknown etiology, sharing symptoms with giant cell arthritis (GCA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The pathogenic inflammatory roots are still not well understood, and there is a lack of extensive biomarker studies to explain the disease debut and post-acute phase. This study aimed to deeply analyze the serum proteome and inflammatory response of PMR patients before and after glucocorticoid treatment. We included treatment-naïve PMR patients, collecting samples before and after 3 months of treatment. For comparison, disease-modifying antirheumatic drug (DMARD)-naïve RA patients were included and matched to healthy controls (CTL). The serum proteome was examined using label-free quantitative mass spectrometry, while inflammation levels were assessed using multiplex inflammatory cytokine and cell-free DNA assays. The serum proteomes of the four groups comprised acute phase reactants, coagulation factors, complement proteins, immunoglobulins, and apolipoproteins. Serum amyloid A (SAA1) was significantly reduced by active PMR treatment. Cell-free DNA levels in PMR and RA groups were significantly higher than in healthy controls due to acute inflammation. Complement factors had minimal changes post-treatment. The individual serum proteome in PMR patients showed over 100 abundantly variable proteins, emphasizing the systemic impact of PMR disease debut and the effect of treatment. Interleukin (IL)-6 and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) were significantly impacted by glucocorticoid treatment. Our study defines the PMR serum proteome during glucocorticoid treatment and highlights the role of SAA1, IL-6, and IFN-γ in treatment responses. An involvement of PGLYRP2 in acute PMR could indicate a response to bacterial infection, highlighting its role in the acute phase of the immune response. The results suggest that PMR may be an aberrant response to a bacterial infection with an exacerbated IL-6 and acute phase inflammatory response and molecular attempts to limit the inflammation.