Estimation of Vehicle Dynamic Parameters Based on the Two-Stage Estimation Method.

Vehicle dynamic parameters are of vital importance to establish feasible vehicle models which are used to provide active controls and automated driving control. However, most vehicle dynamics parameters are difficult to obtain directly. In this paper, a new method, which requires only conventional sensors, is proposed to estimate vehicle dynamic parameters. The influence of vehicle dynamic parameters on vehicle dynamics often involves coupling. To solve the problem of coupling, a two-stage estimation method, consisting of multiple-models and the Unscented Kalman Filter, is proposed in this paper. During the first stage, the longitudinal vehicle dynamics model is used. Through vehicle acceleration/deceleration, this model can be used to estimate the distance between the vehicle centroid and vehicle front, the height of vehicle centroid and tire longitudinal stiffness. The estimated parameter can be used in the second stage. During the second stage, a single-track with roll dynamics vehicle model is adopted. By making vehicle continuous steering, this vehicle model can be used to estimate tire cornering stiffness, the vehicle moment of inertia around the yaw axis and the moment of inertia around the longitudinal axis. The simulation results show that the proposed method is effective and vehicle dynamic parameters can be well estimated.

A New Trajectory Tracking Algorithm for Autonomous Vehicles Based on Model Predictive Control.

Trajectory tracking is a key technology for precisely controlling autonomous vehicles. In this paper, we propose a trajectory-tracking method based on model predictive control. Instead of using the forward Euler integration method, the backward Euler integration method is used to establish the predictive model. To meet the real-time requirement, a constraint is imposed on the control law and the warm-start technique is employed. The MPC-based controller is proved to be stable. The simulation results demonstrate that, at the cost of no or a little increase in computational time, the tracking performance of the controller is much better than that of controllers using the forward Euler method. The maximum lateral errors are reduced by 69.09%, 47.89% and 78.66%. The real-time performance of the MPC controller is good. The calculation time is below 0.0203 s, which is shorter than the control period.

Danger peptide signaling enhances internalization of a geminivirus symptom determinant in plant cells during infection.

Geminiviruses are DNA viruses that cause severe diseases in diverse species of plants, resulting in considerable agricultural losses worldwide. C4 proteins are a major symptom determinant in several geminiviruses, including Beet severe curly top virus (BSCTV). Here, we uncovered a novel mechanism by which danger peptide signaling enhances the internalization of BSCTV C4 in plant cells. Previous studies showed that this signaling is important for activation of bacterium- and fungus-triggered immune responses, but its function in plant-virus interactions was previously unknown. Pep1 RECEPTOR1 (PEPR1) and PEPR2 are receptor kinases recognized by Peps (plant elicitor peptides) in the danger peptide pathway. We found that BSCTV C4 up-regulated and interacted with PEPR2 but not PEPR1. The Pep1-PEPR2 complex stimulated the internalization of C4 in both Arabidopsis and Nicotiana benthamiana cells. Furthermore, C4 induced callus formation in Arabidopsis, which was suppressed by PEPR2 overexpression but enhanced in the pepr2 mutants. In the presence of Pep1, overexpression of PEPR2 suppressed BSCTV infection in N. benthamiana. Exogenous Pep1 also reduced BSCTV infection in Arabidopsis in a PEPR2-dependent manner. Thus, PEPR2 recognizes the symptom determinant C4 and enhances its internalization mediated by danger peptides, suppressing BSCTV infection.

[In vitro culture of the testis tissue of BALB/c mice with spermatogenic dysfunction].

OBJECTIVE: To explore the pathways of development and maturation of the testis tissue in mice with spermatogenic dysfunction in vitro. METHODS: Sixty-eight 8-week-old BALB/c male mice were randomly divided into four groups of equal number, normal control, Sertoli cell only syndrome (SCOS), severe hypo-spermatogenesis (H-S1), and mild hypo-spermatogenesis (H-S2), and the models were established in the latter three groups by intraperitoneal injection of busulfan at 40 mg/kg for 4, 6 and 8 weeks, respectively. The testis tissues of the mice were cultured with the agarose gel method in vitro till the 4th week, followed by determination of the expressions of the marker proteins STRA8 at meiotic initiation, SCP3 during meiosis, and TNP1 after meiosis by immunohistochemistry. The development and maturation of the germ cells during the in vitro culture were evaluated, and their apoptosis detected by TUNEL. RESULTS: The more severe the testicular tissue injury, the lower the expression of the STRA8 protein in the SCOS, H-S1 and H-S2 groups as compared with the normal control before in vitro culture on agarose gel (P < 0.05), and the STRA8 expression was significantly upregulated in the former three groups after 4 weeks of culturing (P < 0.05). The expression of SCP3 was the lowest in the SCOS but the highest in the H-S2 group before culturing (P < 0.05), and was not as high as that in the control, though increased after 4 weeks of culturing. TNP1 was positively expressed in all the mice of the control, some individuals of the H-S1 and H-S2 groups (P< 0.05), but not in the SCOS group at 4 weeks. The apoptosis of germ cells was significantly increased in the SCOS but decreased in the H-S groups compared with that in the normal control after 4 weeks of culturing (P< 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In vitro culture on agarose gel induces the meiosis of the testis tissue in BALB/c mice with spermatogenic dysfunction, and the effect is even better in those with mild spermatogenic dysfunction.

S-acylation of a geminivirus C4 protein is essential for regulating the CLAVATA pathway in symptom determination.

Geminiviruses, such as beet severe curly top virus (BSCTV), are a group of DNA viruses that cause severe plant diseases and agricultural losses. The C4 protein is a major symptom determinant in several geminiviruses; however, its regulatory mechanism and molecular function in plant cells remain unclear. Here, we show that BSCTV C4 is S-acylated in planta, and that this post-translational lipid modification is necessary for its membrane localization and functions, especially its regulation of shoot development of host plants. Furthermore, the S-acylated form of C4 interacts with CLAVATA 1 (CLV1), an important receptor kinase in meristem maintenance, and consequentially affects the expression of WUSCHEL, a major target of CLV1. The abnormal development of siliques in Arabidopsis thaliana infected with BSCTV is also dependent on the S-acylation of C4, implying a potential role of CLAVATA signaling in this process. Collectively, our results show that S-acylation is essential for BSCTV C4 function, including the regulation of the CLAVATA pathway, during geminivirus infection.

A two-phase procedure for non-normal quantitative trait genetic association study.

BACKGROUND: The nonparametric trend test (NPT) is well suitable for identifying the genetic variants associated with quantitative traits when the trait values do not satisfy the normal distribution assumption. If the genetic model, defined according to the mode of inheritance, is known, the NPT derived under the given genetic model is optimal. However, in practice, the genetic model is often unknown beforehand. The NPT derived from an uncorrected model might result in loss of power. When the underlying genetic model is unknown, a robust test is preferred to maintain satisfactory power. RESULTS: We propose a two-phase procedure to handle the uncertainty of the genetic model for non-normal quantitative trait genetic association study. First, a model selection procedure is employed to help choose the genetic model. Then the optimal test derived under the selected model is constructed to test for possible association. To control the type I error rate, we derive the joint distribution of the test statistics developed in the two phases and obtain the proper size. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed method is more robust than existing methods through the simulation results and application to gene DNAH9 from the Genetic Analysis Workshop 16 for associated with Anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibody further demonstrate its performance.

A marginal rank-based inverse normal transformation approach to comparing multiple clinical trial endpoints.

The increase in incidence of obesity and chronic diseases and their health care costs have raised the importance of quality diet on the health policy agendas. The healthy eating index is an important measure for diet quality which consists of 12 components derived from ratios of dependent variables with distributions hard to specify, measurement errors and excessive zero observations difficult to model parametrically. Hypothesis testing involving data of such nature poses challenges because the widely used multiple comparison procedures such as Hotelling's T(2) test and Bonferroni correction may suffer from substantial loss of efficiency. We propose a marginal rank-based inverse normal transformation approach to normalizing the marginal distribution of the data before employing a multivariate test procedure. Extensive simulation was conducted to demonstrate the ability of the proposed approach to adequately control the type I error rate as well as increase the power of the test, with data particularly from non-symmetric or heavy-tailed distributions. The methods are exemplified with data from a dietary intervention study for type I diabetic children. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Elevated Serum Inflammatory Cytokines in Lupus Nephritis Patients, in Association with Promoted hsa-miR-125a.

BACKGROUND: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a clinically heterogeneous, human systemic autoimmune disease characterized by autoantibody formation. MicroRNAs (miRNA) have emerged as an important new class of modulators of gene expression and have been confirmed to regulate the lymphocyte tolerance and autoimmunity in SLE. METHODS: In this study, we investigated the serum miRNA profile in lupus nephritis (LN) patients with microarray technology. TaqMan-based stem-loop real-time polymerase chain reaction was used for validation. We also examined the serum cytokines and chemokines, such as IL-ß, IL-6, TNF-ß, and IP-10, and then analyzed the association of the upregulated IL-ß, IL-6, TNF-α, and IP-10 with each miRNA. RESULTS: Microarray analysis of miRNA indicated 17 upregulated miRNAs in LN patients. Such upregulation of hsa-miR-150, hsa-miR-200c, hsa-miR-181a, hsa-miR-125a, and hsa-miR-675 was also confirmed by RT-qPCR. We also recognized the significant upregulation of serum IL-ß, IL-6, TNF-α, and IP-10 in those LN patients. Moreover, the upregulated IL-ß, IL-6, and TNF-α was significantly associated with serum hsa-miR-125a. CONCLUSIONS: Our study recognized the upregulation of miRNAs such as hsa-miR-150, hsa-miR-200c, hsa-miR-181a, hsa-miR-125a, and hsa-miR-675 and the upregulation of such cytokines and chemokines as IL-ß, IL-6, TNF-α, and IP-10. The upregulated miR-125a contributed to the upregulation of inflammatory IL-ß, IL-6, and TNF-α in LN. Our findings demonstrate that miR-125a can be a novel biomarker for SLE, and help elucidate pathogenic mechanisms of lupus nephritis.

RNA-Seq derived identification of differential transcription in the chrysanthemum leaf following inoculation with Alternaria tenuissima.

BACKGROUND: A major production constraint on the important ornamental species chrysanthemum is black spot which is caused by the necrotrophic fungus Alternaria tenuissima. The molecular basis of host resistance to A. tenuissima has not been studied as yet in any detail. Here, high throughput sequencing was taken to characterize the transcriptomic response of the chrysanthemum leaf to A. tenuissima inoculation. RESULTS: The transcriptomic data was acquired using RNA-Seq technology, based on the Illumina HiSeq™ 2000 platform. Four different libraries derived from two sets of leaves harvested from either inoculated or mock-inoculated plants were characterized. Over seven million clean reads were generated from each library, each corresponding to a coverage of >350,000 nt. About 70% of the reads could be mapped to a set of chrysanthemum unigenes. Read frequency was used as a measure of transcript abundance and therefore as an identifier of differential transcription in the four libraries. The differentially transcribed genes identified were involved in photosynthesis, pathogen recognition, reactive oxygen species generation, cell wall modification and phytohormone signalling; in addition, a number of varied transcription factors were identified. A selection of 23 of the genes was transcription-profiled using quantitative RT-PCR to validate the RNA-Seq output. CONCLUSIONS: A substantial body of chrysanthemum transcriptomic sequence was generated, which led to a number of insights into the molecular basis of the host response to A. tenuissima infection. Although most of the differentially transcribed genes were up-regulated by the presence of the pathogen, those involved in photosynthesis were down-regulated.

Phylogenetic and transcription analysis of chrysanthemum WRKY transcription factors.

WRKY transcription factors are known to function in a number of plant processes. Here we have characterized 15 WRKY family genes of the important ornamental species chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium). A total of 15 distinct sequences were isolated; initially internal fragments were amplified based on transcriptomic sequence, and then the full length cDNAs were obtained using RACE (rapid amplification of cDNA ends) PCR. The transcription of these 15 genes in response to a variety of phytohormone treatments and both biotic and abiotic stresses was characterized. Some of the genes behaved as would be predicted based on their homology with Arabidopsis thaliana WRKY genes, but others showed divergent behavior.

[Study on pharmacokinetics of geniposide in mice administrated by xingnaojing microemulsion and mPEG2000-PLA modified xingnaojing microemulsion].

An HPLC method for the determination of geniposide concentration in mouse plasma was developed and the pharmacokinetics after intranasal administration of Xingnaojing microemulsion (XNJ-M) and mPEG2000-PLA modified Xingnaojing microemulsion (XNJ-MM) were investigated. Eighty mice were treated by XNJ-M and XNJ-MM nasally. The plasma samples were collected at different times and the drug in samples was detected by HPLC. The pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated by the software of Kinetica. The pharmacokinetic parameters of geniposide of XNJ-M were C(max) (4.36 +/- 2.69) mg x L(-1), t(max) 1 min, MRT (29.73 +/- 4.54) min, AUC (53.63 +/- 14.03) mg x L(-1) x min. The pharmacokinetic parameters of geniposide of XNJ-MM were C(max) (9.75 +/- 4.14) mg x L(-1), t(max) 1 min, MRT(22.34 +/- 2.90) min, AUC (131.87 +/- 40.13) mg x L(-1) x min. Geniposide can be absorbed into blood in a higher degree after intranasal administration with XNJ-MM compared to XNJ-M, which maybe caused by its less irritating and more absorption.

Reprogramming Macrophage Polarization, Depleting ROS by Astaxanthin and Thioketal-Containing Polymers Delivering Rapamycin for Osteoarthritis Treatment.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic joint disease characterized by synovitis and joint cartilage destruction. The severity of OA is highly associated with the imbalance between M1 and M2 synovial macrophages. In this study, a novel strategy is designed to modulate macrophage polarization by reducing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and regulating mitochondrial function. A ROS-responsive polymer is synthesized to self-assemble with astaxanthin and autophagy activator rapamycin to form nanoparticles (NP@PolyRHAPM ). In vitro experiments show that NP@PolyRHAPM significantly reduced intracellular ROS levels. Furthermore, NP@PolyRHAPM restored mitochondrial membrane potential, increased glutathione (GSH) levels, and promoted intracellular autophagy, hence successfully repolarizing M1 macrophages into the M2 phenotype. This repolarization enhanced chondrocyte proliferation and vitality while inhibiting apoptosis. In vivo experiments utilizing an anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT)-induced OA mouse model revealed the anti-inflammatory and cartilage-protective effects of NP@PolyRHAPM , effectively mitigating OA progression. Consequently, the findings suggest that intra-articular delivery of ROS-responsive nanocarrier systems holds significant promise as a potential and effective therapeutic strategy for OA treatment.

The Critical Analysis of Membranes toward Sustainable and Efficient Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries.

Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB) are a promising technology for large-scale storage of electrical energy, combining safety, high capacity, ease of scalability, and prolonged durability; features which have triggered their early commercial implementation. Furthering the deployment of VRFB technologies requires addressing challenges associated to a pivotal component: the membrane. Examples include vanadium crossover, insufficient conductivity, escalated costs, and sustainability concerns related to the widespread adoption of perfluoroalkyl-based membranes, e.g., perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA). Herein, recent advances in high-performance and sustainable membranes for VRFB, offering insights into prospective research directions to overcome these challenges, are reviewed. The analysis reveals the disparities and trade-offs between performance advances enabled by PFSA membranes and composites, and the lack of sustainability in their final applications. The potential of PFSA-free membranes and present strategies to enhance their performance are discussed. This study delves into vital membrane parameters to enhance battery performance, suggesting protocols and design strategies to achieve high-performance and sustainable VRFB membranes.

Immune Cell-Derived Exosomes in Inflammatory Disease and Inflammatory Tumor Microenvironment: A Review.

Inflammation is a common feature of many inflammatory diseases and tumors, and plays a decisive role in their development. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles unleashed by assorted types of cells, and it is widely known that exosomes of different immune cell sources play different functions. Exosome production has recently been reported for immune cells comprising macrophages, T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells (DCs). Immune cell-derived exosomes are involved in a variety of inflammatory responses.Herein, we summarize and review the role of macrophages, T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells (DC) in inflammatory diseases, with a focus on the role of immune cell-derived exosomes in osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and the inflammatory tumor microenvironment (TME).These findings are expected to be important for developing new treatments for inflammatory diseases and ameliorating tumor-related inflammation.

Identification of 1,3,4-Thiadiazolyl-Containing Thiazolidine-2,4-dione Derivatives as Novel PTP1B Inhibitors with Antidiabetic Activity.

Forty-one 1,3,4-thiadiazolyl-containing thiazolidine-2,4-dione derivatives (MY1-41) were designed and synthesized as protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) inhibitors with activity against diabetes mellitus (DM). All synthesized compounds (MY1-41) presented potential PTP1B inhibitory activities, with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values ranging from 0.41 ± 0.05 to 4.68 ± 0.61 µM, compared with that of the positive control lithocholic acid (IC50 = 9.62 ± 0.14 µM). The most potent compound, MY17 (IC50 = 0.41 ± 0.05 µM), was a reversible, noncompetitive inhibitor of PTP1B. Circular dichroism spectroscopy and molecular docking were employed to analyze the binding interaction between MY17 and PTP1B. In HepG2 cells, MY17 treatment could alleviate palmitic acid (PA)-induced insulin resistance by upregulating the expression of phosphorylated insulin receptor substrate and protein kinase B. In vivo, oral administration of MY17 could reduce the fasting blood glucose level and improve glucose tolerance and dyslipidemia in mice suffering from DM.

Hypothalamic NPFFR2 attenuates central insulin signaling and its knockout diminishes metabolic dysfunction in mouse models of diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: The hypothalamus is a crucial brain region that mediates the effects of insulin and leptin signals on peripheral metabolic functions. Previous research has shown that insulin signals in the hypothalamus act via multiple neuronal circuits and anabolic/catabolic pathways that converge on the vagus nerve and sympathetic fibers to coordinate energy metabolism in peripheral organs. Additionally, neuropeptide FF (NPFF) has been identified as a regulator of feeding behaviors and energy homeostasis in the hypothalamus, but the mechanisms underlying its involvement in metabolic control remain unclear. This study aims to explore the underlying mechanisms of NPFF in modulating metabolic disorders. METHODS: In this study, we investigated the physiological role of NPFF in insulin-related energy homeostasis and metabolic health. First, we evaluated the effects of NPFF and its receptors on central insulin signaling using mouse hypothalamic cell lines and Npffr2-overexpressing mice. To further explore the effects of NPFFR2 on insulin-related metabolic disorders, such as diabetes mellitus, we used Npffr2-deleted mice in combination with the streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 1 diabetes and high-fat diet/STZ-induced type 2 diabetic mouse models. The impacts of central NPFFR2 were demonstrated specifically through Npffr2 overexpression in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus, which subsequently induced type 2 diabetes. RESULTS: We found that stimulating NPFFR2 in the hypothalamus blocked hypothalamic insulin activity. Npffr2 deletion improved central and peripheral metabolic symptoms in both mouse models of diabetes mellitus, exerting effects on central and systemic insulin resistance, feeding behaviors, glucose and insulin intolerance, lipid metabolism, liver steatosis, and inflammation of white adipose tissues. The overexpression of ARC Npffr2 augmented the metabolic dysregulation in the mouse model of type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that hypothalamic NPFFR2 negatively regulates insulin signaling in the central nervous system and plays an important role in maintaining systemic metabolic health, thereby providing valuable insights for potential clinical interventions targeting these health challenges.

Proteomic changes in the base of chrysanthemum cuttings during adventitious root formation.

BACKGROUND: A lack of competence to form adventitious roots by cuttings of Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) is an obstacle for the rapid fixation of elite genotypes. We performed a proteomic analysis of cutting bases of chrysanthemum cultivar 'Jinba' during adventitious root formation (ARF) in order to identify rooting ability associated protein and/or to get further insight into the molecular mechanisms controlling adventitious rooting. RESULTS: The protein profiles during ARF were analyzed by comparing the 2-DE gels between 0-day-old (just severed from the stock plant) and 5-day-old cutting bases of chrysanthemum. A total of 69 differentially accumulated protein spots (two-fold change; t-test: 95% significance) were excised and analyzed using MALDI-TOF/TOF, among which 42 protein spots (assigned as 24 types of proteins and 7 unknown proteins) were confidently identified using the NCBI database. The results demonstrated that 19% proteins were related to carbohydrate and energy metabolism, 16% to photosynthesis, 10% to protein fate, 7% to plant defense, 6% to cell structure, 7% to hormone related, 3% to nitrate metabolism, 3% to lipid metabolism, 3% to ascorbate biosynthesis and 3% to RNA binding, 23% were unknown proteins. Twenty types of differentially accumulated proteins including ACC oxidase (CmACO) were further analyzed at the transcription level, most of which were in accordance with the results of 2-DE. Moreover, the protein abundance changes of CmACO are supported by western blot experiments. Ethylene evolution was higher during the ARF compared with day 0 after cutting, while silver nitrate, an inhibitor of ethylene synthesis, pretreatment delayed the ARF. It suggested that ACC oxidase plays an important role in ARF of chrysanthemum. CONCLUSIONS: The proteomic analysis of cutting bases of chrysanthemum allowed us to identify proteins whose expression was related to ARF. We identified auxin-induced protein PCNT115 and ACC oxidase positively or negatively correlated to ARF, respectively. Several other proteins related to carbohydrate and energy metabolism, protein degradation, photosynthetic and cell structure were also correlated to ARF. The induction of protein CmACO provide a strong case for ethylene as the immediate signal for ARF. This strongly suggests that the proteins we have identified will be valuable for further insight into the molecular mechanisms controlling ARF.

The abundance and diversity of soil fungi in continuously monocropped chrysanthemum.

Chrysanthemum is an important ornamental plant which is increasingly being monocropped. Monocropping is known to affect both fungal abundance and species diversity. Here, quantitative PCR allied with DGGE analysis was used to show that fungi were more abundant in the rhizosphere than in the bulk soil and that the fungal populations changed during the growth cycle of the chrysanthemum. The majority of amplified fragments appeared to derive from Fusarium species, and F. oxysporum and F. solani proved to be the major pathogenic species which are built up by monocropping.

[Study on tissue distribution of borneol in mice by intravenous and intranasal administrations].

OBJECTIVE: To develop a GC-FID method to determine borneol's concentration in mouse tissues, and to investigate the tissue distribution after intravenous and intranasal administrations of borneol. METHOD: Mouse brains, hearts, livers, spleens, lungs and kidneys were collected at 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 60, 90, 120 min after administration of borneol with the dose of 30.0 mg x kg(-1). The drug in tissues was extracted with ethyl acetate, and borneol's concentration detected by GC, with octadecane as the internal standard. RESULT: The calibration curve showed a good linear relationship. Extraction recoveries, inter-day and intra-day precisions and stability were in conformity with the analytical requirements of biological samples. Borneol was mainly distributed in most tissues, more in heart, brain and kidney, and less in liver, spleen and lung. CONCLUSION: The established GC-FID method is applicable for content determination of borneol in tissues. After intravenous and intranasal administrations in mice, borneol is mainly distributed in abundant blood-supply tissues. After intranasal administration, brain tissues showed the highest target coefficient and target effectiveness.

[Comparative study on rat in situ nasal absorption of geniposide of Xingnaojing nasal drop and Xingnaojing microemulsion].

Xingnaojing (XNJ) is an effective clinical drug used to treat acute stroke. Compared with injection administration, its nasal administration has better brain targeting. Therefore, through nasal administration, XNJ microemulsion could help solve the drug load of compound components of different polarities contained in large-dose and high-concentration traditional Chinese medicines, and reduce irritation to nasal mucosa In this study, the modified volume correction method and the improved rat in situ nasal perfusion model were adopted to compare the nasal absorption of geniposide contained in different XNJ preparations. The results showed that the constant absorption rate of geniposide (GE) in XNJ-D was (2.95 +/- 0.25) x 10(-3) min(-1), whereas the constant absorption rate of GE in XNJ-M was (2.16 +/- 0.21) x 10(-3) min(-1). This indicated that the rat nasal absorption of GE in different XNJ preparations complied with the first-order process and could be considered as passive absorption. GE in XNJ-D was absorbed faster than that in XNJ-M, which provided basis for the development of nasal preparations of XNJ.