Recovery from parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis takes approximately two months in very low birth weight infants.

AIM: To investigate the clinical characteristics and course of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis (PNAC) in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. METHODS: The charts of VLBW infants were retrospectively reviewed. The clinical characteristics of infants with and without PNAC were compared, trends in liver enzymes were investigated, and the characteristics of infants with PNAC were analysed based on age of onset. RESULTS: PNAC was observed in 53 (13.2%) of 403 infants who survived and completed follow-up and was associated with significantly lower gestational age, birth weight, and adverse neonatal outcomes. PNAC started at a median 32 (interquartile range 23-47) days, PN was applied for 53 (34.5-64.5) days, the maximum direct bilirubin (DB) was observed at 63 (50-76) postnatal days, and PNAC resolved at 94 (79-122) postnatal days postnatal age. PNAC lasted 61 (38-89.5) days. AST and ALT normalised at 111 (100.3-142.0) and 109.5 (97-161.3) postnatal days. Infants with early-onset PNAC had significantly longer PN duration, higher maximum DB, and higher maximum AST than those with late-onset PNAC. CONCLUSION: Elevated DB, AST, and ALT persist for a long period after discontinuing PN. We suggest a cautious approach that involves waiting and reducing the frequency of additional repetitive examinations.

Association of Maternal Hypertensive Disorders During Pregnancy With Severe Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: This meta-analysis was performed to examine the association between maternal hypertension during pregnancy (HDP) and neonatal bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). METHODS: We systematically searched PubMed, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, and the KoreaMed database for relevant studies. We used the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for quality assessment of all included studies. The meta-analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (version 3.3). RESULTS: We included 35 studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria; the total number of infants evaluated came to 97,399 through review process. Maternal HDP was not significantly associated with any definition of BPD, i.e., oxygen dependency at 36 weeks of gestation (odds ratio [OR], 1.162; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.991-1.362; P = 0.064) in pooled analysis of 29 studies or oxygen dependency at 28 days of age (OR, 1.084; 95% CI, 0.660-1.780; P = 0.751) in pooled analysis of 8 studies. Maternal HDP was significantly associated only with severe BPD (OR, 2.341; 95% CI, 1.726-3.174; P < 0.001). BPD was not associated with HDP in the overall analysis (OR, 1.131; 95% CI, 0.977-1.309; P = 0.100) or subgroup analysis according to the definition of HDP. CONCLUSION: Maternal HDP was not associated with neonatal BPD defined by the duration of oxygen dependency (at either 36 weeks of gestation or 28 days of life) but was associated with severe BPD.

Oxygen for the delivery room respiratory support of moderate-to-late preterm infants. An international survey of clinical practice from 21 countries.

AIM: The aim of this study was to determine clinician opinion regarding oxygen management in moderate-late preterm resuscitation. METHODS: An anonymous online questionnaire was distributed through email/social messaging platforms to neonatologists in 21 countries (October 2020-March 2021) via REDCap. RESULTS: Of the 695 respondents, 69% had access to oxygen blenders and 90% had pulse oximeters. Respondents from high-income countries were more likely to have oxygen blenders than those from middle-income countries (72% vs. 66%). Most initiated respiratory support with FiO2 0.21 (43%) or 0.3 (36%) but only 45% titrated FiO2 to target SpO2 . Most (89%) considered heart rate as a more important indicator of response than SpO2 . Almost all (96%) supported the need for well-designed trials to examine oxygenation in moderate-late preterm resuscitation. CONCLUSION: Most clinicians resuscitated moderate-late preterm infants with lower initial FiO2 but some cannot/will not target SpO2 or titrate FiO2 . Most consider heart rate as a more important indicator of infant response than SpO2 .Large and robust clinical trials examining oxygen use for moderate-late preterm resuscitation, including long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes, are supported amongst clinicians.

The forehead is a better site than the sternum to check transcutaneous bilirubin during phototherapy in sick infants.

BACKGROUND: To confirm the accuracy of transcutaneous bilirubin (TcB) in the neonatal intensive care unit both with and without phototherapy, and compare forehead and sternum as the TcB assessment site. METHODS: We simultaneously assessed the total serum bilirubin (TSB) and TcB at the forehead and sternum, using a JM-103 bilirubinometer. We analyzed the correlation between the TSB and TcB assessed at the forehead and sternum, with measurements classified as 'without phototherapy' (before phototherapy and > 24 hours after phototherapy discontinuation) and 'with phototherapy' (after 24 hours of phototherapy). RESULTS: There were 1,084 paired forehead and sternum TcB measurements, with the corresponding TSB measurement, from 384 infants. Their mean gestational age of 35.4 ± 3.2 weeks (62% were preterm) and a mean birth weight of 2434 ± 768 grams, and TSB was 6.61 ± 3.56 mg/dL. Without phototherapy, TcB values at the forehead and sternum were correlated well to the TSB value (r = 0.925 and 0.915, respectively). With phototherapy, TcB values at the forehead and sternum were significantly correlated with the TSB value, but TcB at the forehead (r = 0.751) was a better match to the TSB than was TcB at the sternum (r = 0.668). Additionally, Bland-Altman plots showed a greater degree of underestimation of the TSB by TcB at the sternum with phototherapy. CONCLUSIONS: TcB was more accurate in infants not receiving phototherapy. During phototherapy, it is better to assess TcB at the forehead rather than at the sternum.

Review of guidelines and recommendations from 17 countries highlights the challenges that clinicians face caring for neonates born to mothers with COVID-19.

AIM: This review examined how applicable national and regional clinical practice guidelines and recommendations for managing neonates born to mothers with COVID-19 mothers were to the evolving pandemic. METHODS: A systematic search and review identified 20 guidelines and recommendations that had been published by May 25, 2020. We analysed documents from 17 countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, India, Italy, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the United States. RESULTS: The documents were based on expert consensus with limited evidence and were of variable, low methodological rigour. Most did not provide recommendations for delivery methods or managing symptomatic infants. None provided recommendations for post-discharge assimilation of potentially infected infants into the community. The majority encouraged keeping mothers and infants together, subject to infection control measures, but one-third recommended separation. Although breastfeeding or using breastmilk was widely encouraged, two countries specifically prohibited this. CONCLUSION: The guidelines and recommendations for managing infants affected by COVID-19 were of low, variable quality and may be unsustainable. It is important that transmission risks are not increased when new information is incorporated into clinical recommendations. Practice guidelines should emphasise the extent of uncertainty and clearly define gaps in the evidence.

Perinatal factors and the development of childhood asthma.

BACKGROUND: Perinatal factors are suspected to have a significant impact on the development of asthma; however, sufficiently powered studies have not been performed to investigate this issue. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether perinatal factors and other risk factors have an independent or combined effect on the development of asthma. METHODS: This study involved 3,770 children (mean age 9.1 years, range 5.68-12.16 years; 51.9% boys) who were enrolled in the Elementary School Student Cohort (2009-2014) in Ulsan University Hospital (Ulsan, Korea). Subjects were divided into an asthma group (n = 514) and a non-asthma group (n = 3,256). RESULTS: Multivariate analyses showed that early life (within first week) oxygen therapy (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.864, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.156-3.004) and breastfeeding (aOR 0.763, 95% CI 0.606-0.960) were 2 significant perinatal factors influencing the development of asthma. Environmental tobacco smoke (aOR 1.634, 95% CI 1.298-2.058) and parental allergic disease (aOR 1.882, 95% CI 1.521-2.328) also were identified as risk factors. Using subgroup analyses, combined effects on asthma development were observed between perinatal factors (early life oxygen therapy and breastfeeding) and other risk factors (vicinity to major roadway [traffic-related air pollution], environmental tobacco smoke, parental allergic disease, and atopy). CONCLUSION: Early life oxygen therapy and breastfeeding were identified as 2 important perinatal factors influencing the development of asthma. Furthermore, these factors showed combined effects with other risk factors (environmental tobacco smoke, traffic-related air pollution, parental allergic disease, and atopy) on the development of asthma.

Risk factor analysis of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis in extremely low birth weight infants.

AIM: Parenteral nutrition (PN) provides an alternative nutrition source for preterm infants who are intolerant of enteral nutrition. However, prolonged PN increases the risk of PN-associated cholestasis (PNAC). We conducted this study to determine the incidence and risk factors of PNAC in extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of ELBW infants from March 2010 to April 2015. PNAC was diagnosed in infants with a history of PN for at least two weeks and direct bilirubin concentrations >2 mg/dL after other causes of neonatal cholestasis were excluded. RESULTS: Of the 114 eligible ELBW infants, 41 (36%) were diagnosed with PNAC. The multivariate analysis showed that birth weight, sepsis, necrotising enterocolitis, fluconazole prophylaxis and the duration of PN and hospitalisation were independent risk factors for the development of PNAC (p < 0.05). However, parenteral fish oil-based lipid preparation (FOLP) did not reduce the risk of PNAC. Although PNAC was not a direct cause of death, it was associated with an increased risk of mortality. CONCLUSION: PNAC was common in ELBW infants, was associated with various clinical factors and increased the risk of mortality. However, we did not observe the protective effect of FOLP against PNAC.

Early Caffeine Use in Very Low Birth Weight Infants and Neonatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

The use of caffeine citrate for treatment of apnea in very low birth weight infants showed short-term and long-term benefits. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature was undertaken to document the effect providing caffeine early (0-2 days of life) compared to providing caffeine late (≥3 days of life) in very low birth weight infants on several neonatal outcomes, including bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). We searched MEDLINE, the EMBASE database, the Cochrane Library, and KoreaMed for this meta-analysis. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and Jadad's scale. Studies were included if they examined the effect of the early use of caffeine compared with the late use of caffeine. Two reviewers screened the candidate articles and extracted the data from the full-text of all of the included studies. We included a total of 59,136 participants (range 58,997-59,136; variable in one study) from a total of 5 studies. The risk of death (odds ratio [OR], 0.902; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.828 to 0.983; P=0.019), bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) (OR, 0.507; 95% CI, 0.396 to 0.648; P<0.001), and BPD or death (OR, 0.526; 95% CI, 0.384 to 0.719; P<0.001) were lower in the early caffeine group. Early caffeine use was not associated with a risk of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and NEC requiring surgery. This meta-analysis suggests that early caffeine use has beneficial effects on neonatal outcomes, including mortality and BPD, without increasing the risk of NEC.

Early discontinuation of thyroxine therapy is possible in most very low-birthweight infants with hypothyroidism detected by screening.

AIM: To determine the feasibility of discontinuing thyroid hormone treatment earlier than recommended by the current guidelines for congenital hypothyroidism. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of very low-birthweight (VLBW) infants born at Chungbuk National University Hospital from January 2006 to December 2010. Infants were divided into two groups--hypothyroid and normal thyroid--on the basis of the thyroid function test results. Infants in the hypothyroid group were treated with levothyroxine (L-T4) and attempts to discontinue this therapy began when they were about 2 years old. RESULTS: Of the 216 infants born during the study period, 20 died and 196 were included in the study. Of these, 46 were in the hypothyroid group and 150 were in the normal thyroid group. Thirty-nine infants were taken off L-T4 therapy at around 2 years of age. All were successfully weaned off L-T4 and retained normal thyroid function. Tc-99 m thyroid scans were performed in 32 infants, and no distinct abnormality was noted. CONCLUSION: Thyroid dysfunction in VLBW infants was common in our cohort and most cases were transient. Attempts to discontinue this therapy could begin at around the age of two or earlier when low doses of L-T4 have achieved maintenance.

Thyroid dysfunctions of prematurity and their impacts on neurodevelopmental outcome.

BACKGROUND: Thyroid dysfunction is very common and is associated with neurodevelopmental impairments in preterm infants. OBJECTIVES: This study was conducted to determine the incidence and natural course of various thyroid dysfunctions and their impacts on neurodevelopmental outcomes among premature infants. METHODS: A total of 177 infants were enrolled who were born at <34 weeks or whose birth weight was <1500 g and who underwent repeat thyroid function tests. We analyzed how various thyroid dysfunctions affected neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 months of corrected age. RESULTS: Thyroid dysfunction was noted in 88 infants. Hypothyroxinemia was observed in 23 infants, and their thyroid function was influenced by variable clinical factors. Free T4 levels were all normalized without thyroxine medication, and neurodevelopmental outcomes were not affected. In contrast, hyperthyrotropinemia was not associated with other clinical factors. Among 58 subjects who had hyperthyrotropinemia, only 31 infants showed normal thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels at follow-up tests. The remaining 27 infants had persistently high TSH levels, which significantly and poorly influenced the neurodevelopmental outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Thyroid dysfunction is common among preterm infants. With the exception of persistent hyperthyrotropinemia, it generally does not affect neurodevelopmental outcomes. However, the beneficial effects of thyroid hormone therapy in patients with persistent hyperthyrotropinemia merits further study.

A simplified formula using early blood gas analysis can predict survival outcomes and the requirements for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in congenital diaphragmatic hernia.

The aims of this study were to investigate whether early arterial blood gas analysis (ABGA) could define the severity of disease in infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH). We conducted a retrospective study over a 21-yr period of infants diagnosed with CDH. Outcomes were defined as death before discharge, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation requirements (ECMO) or death. A total 114 infants were included in this study. We investigated whether simplified prediction formula [PO2-PCO2] values at 0, 4, 8, and 12 hr after birth were associated with mortality, and ECMO or death. The area under curve (AUC) of receiver operating characteristic curve was used to determine the optimum ABGA values for predicting outcomes. The value of [PO2-PCO2] at birth was the best predictor of mortality (AUC 0.803, P < 0.001) and at 4 hr after birth was the most reliable predictor of ECMO or death (AUC 0.777, P < 0.001). The value of [PO2-PCO2] from ABGA early period after birth can reliably predict outcomes in infants with CDH.

Association between vitamin D level and respiratory distress syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Growing evidence suggests an association between the vitamin D levels and respiratory outcomes of preterm infants. The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to explore whether premature neonates with a vitamin D deficiency have an increased risk of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). METHODS: We searched PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library up through July 20, 2021. The search terms were 'premature infant', 'vitamin D', and 'respiratory distress syndrome'. We retrieved randomized controlled trials and cohort and case-control studies. For statistical analysis, we employed the random-effects model in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Software ver. 3.3. We employed the Newcastle-Ottawa Scales for quality assessment of the included studies. RESULTS: A total of 121 potentially relevant studies were found, of which 15 (12 cohort studies and 3 case-control studies) met the inclusion criteria; the studies included 2,051 preterm infants. We found significant associations between RDS development in such infants and vitamin D deficiency within 24 h of birth based on various criteria, thus vitamin D levels < 30 ng/mL (OR 3.478; 95% CI 1.817-6.659; p < 0.001), < 20 ng/mL (OR 4.549; 95% CI 3.007-6.881; p < 0.001), < 15 ng/mL (OR 17.267; 95% CI 1.084-275.112; p = 0.044), and < 10 ng/ml (OR 1.732; 95% CI 1.031-2.910; p = 0.038), and an even lower level of vitamin D (SMD = -0.656; 95% CI -1.029 to -0.283; p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: Although the vitamin D deficiency definitions varied and different methods were used to measure vitamin D levels, vitamin D deficiency or lower levels of vitamin D within 24 h of birth were always associated with RDS development. Monitoring of neonatal vitamin D levels or the maintenance of adequate levels may reduce the risk of RDS.

"Mild'' Hypoxic-Ischaemic Encephalopathy and Therapeutic Hypothermia: A Survey of Clinical Practice and Opinion from 35 Countries.

INTRODUCTION: We aimed to determine global professional opinion and practice for the use of therapeutic hypothermia (TH) for treating infants with mild hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE). METHODS: A web-based survey (REDCap) was distributed via emails, social networking sites, and professional groups from October 2020 to February 2021 to neonatal clinicians in 35 countries. RESULTS: A total of 484 responses were obtained from 35 countries and categorized into low/middle-income (43%, LMIC) or high-income (57%, HIC) countries. Of the 484 respondents, 53% would provide TH in mild HIE on case-to-case basis and only 25% would never cool. Clinicians from LMIC were more likely to routinely offer TH in mild HIE (25% v HIC 16%, p < 0.05), have a unit protocol for providing TH (50% v HIC 26%, p < 0.05), use adjunctive tools, e.g., aEEG (49% v HIC 32%, p < 0.001), conduct an MRI post TH (48% v HIC 40%, p < 0.05) and less likely to use neurological examinations as a HIE severity grading tool (80% v HIC 95%, p < 0.001). The majority of respondents (91%) would support a randomized controlled trial that was sufficiently large to examine neurodevelopmental outcomes in mild HIE after TH. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first survey of global opinion for TH in mild HIE. The overwhelming majority of professionals would consider "cooling" an infant with mild HIE, but LMIC respondents were more likely to routinely cool infants with mild HIE and use adjunctive tools for diagnosis and follow-up. There is wide practice heterogeneity and a sufficiently large RCT designed to examine neurodevelopmental outcomes, is urgently needed and widely supported.

Neonatal Rotavirus-Associated Leukoencephalopathy Is One of the Main Causes of Fifth-Day Fits.

Our province recently experienced an outbreak of neonatal rotavirus-associated leukoencephalopathy. This study aimed to verify whether rotavirus-associated leukoencephalopathy constituted fifth-day fits, which prevailed in Europe and Australia between the 1970s and mid-1980s. Of 118 full-term neonates who were admitted between 2008 and 2017 due to seizures, those who fulfilled the following criteria for fifth-day fits were included: healthy full-term neonates prior to seizures; absence of perinatal asphyxia; seizure onset during 4-6 days of age; and no known cause of neonatal seizures. Overall, 54 patients (45.8%) met the criteria for fifth-day fits. Of them, 44 patients (81.5%) also had rotavirus-associated leukoencephalopathy. The mean annual incidence of fifth-day fits was 5.4 cases, which peaked in 2012-2013 (13 cases) and became zero in 2017. Fifth-day fits with rotavirus-associated leukoencephalopathy accounted for 37.2% of neonatal seizures, which peaked at 70.6% in 2012, and gradually reduced to zero in 2017. Concordance of clinical features between rotavirus-associated leukoencephalopathy and fifth-day fits and their epidemic-like features suggest that rotavirus-associated leukoencephalopathy is one of the main causes of fifth-day fits.

Routine scrubbing reduced central line associated bloodstream infection in NICU.

BACKGROUND: The main aim of this study was to estimate the effectiveness of routine scrubbing by change of the incidence of central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI). METHODS: We surveyed cultures from the NICU environment in December 2017. We found that areas close to infants harbored more bacteria. We implemented routine scrubbing to control sites with the most bacteria starting from January 2018. We retrospectively reviewed and compared the data between the pre (2017) and post (2018) intervention periods. RESULTS: A total of 916 infants were included; 10 CLABSI episodes were identified, 9 and 1 episodes in the pre- and postintervention periods, respectively. We found that the incidence of CLABSI decreased significantly among all admitted infants (P = .006) and also among very low birth weight infants (P = .085). The number of CLABSI cases per 1,000 central line days decreased from 1.89 in 2017 to 0.23 in 2018 (P = .018). The most common bacterial species found in the cultures established from the NICU environment were identical to the CLABSI-causing coagulase-negative Staphylococcus. CONCLUSIONS: Routine scrubbing significantly reduced CLABSI in the NICU.

Association between vitamin D level and bronchopulmonary dysplasia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Neonatal vitamin D deficiency is common and is associated with development of pulmonary disease in children and adults. While the role of vitamin D in normal lung development is well established, the association between vitamin D deficiency and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) remains unclear. The present meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the relationship between vitamin D and BPD. We identified relevant studies (n = 8) using the PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, and KoreaMed databases and applied the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale to assess the methodological components of each study, and used I2 statistic to evaluate heterogeneity. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software version 3.3 was used for the statistical analysis. A total of 909 infants were included, of whom 251 (27.6%) were diagnosed with BPD. We found that both vitamin D deficiency at birth (four studies; OR 2.405; 95% CI 1.269 to 4.560; p = 0.007) and low levels of vitamin D at birth (four studies; standardized mean difference -1.463; 95% CI -2.900 to -0.027; p = 0.046) were associated with BPD. The compiled data suggest that antenatal vitamin D deficiency and low vitamin D levels are associated with neonatal BPD.

Determination of reference range of gamma glutamyl transferase in the neonatal intensive care unit.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to establish the reference range of gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) in the first week of life at each gestational age (GA). METHODS: This retrospective study included infants born and admitted before 7 days of age with no apparent congenital liver disease during four consecutive years. Early GGT levels measured at 3-7 days of age were analyzed according to GA. Differences according to sex, mode of delivery, small for gestational age, and the predictability for cholestasis were analyzed. RESULTS: We analyzed early GGT values in 2091 neonates. The average reference value in neonates (156.7 ± 98.2 IU/L) was much higher than that in adults. The GGT values were significantly higher in preterm than in term infants and in male infants than in female infants. Mode of delivery and small for gestational age were not significantly related to GGT level. Early GGT had no predictive value for cholestasis occurrence. CONCLUSIONS: Early GGT levels were much higher in neonates, especially preterm infants with GA of 31-35 weeks.

Delayed Dexamethasone Therapy and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes in Preterm Infants with Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia.

BACKGROUND: It remains unclear whether the benefit of postnatal corticosteroid as a respiratory rescue therapy outweighs the potential harm of neurodevelopmental impairment (NDI) in very-low-birth-weight infants at risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). METHODS: We reviewed the charts of very-low-birth-weight infants with oxygen dependency for 28 days or more and who survived until 18-22 months' corrected age. Patients were divided into the delayed (≥21 days after birth) dexamethasone therapy (DDT, n=71) and the control (n=60) groups. NDI was defined by the presence of cerebral palsy, Bayley Mental or Psychomotor Developmental Index less than 70, deafness, or blindness. RESULTS: The DDT group was more premature and had worse respiratory morbidities before (ventilator-dependent at 21 days, 69% vs. 17%) and after the DDT (moderate/severe BPD, 41% vs. 15%) than the control group. The risk of NDI did not differ between the DDT and the control groups in the entire cohort (odds ratio and 95% confidence interval, 1.309 [0.530-3.237]) or in the propensity-score-matched cohort (n=62; odds ratio and 95% confidence interval, 1.344 [0.455-3.976]). However, in the subgroup of infants exposed to DDT, the cumulative dexamethasone dose greater than 5.0 mg/kg was significantly associated with NDI. CONCLUSION: Among the very-low-birth-weight infants with BPD, there was no definitely harmful effect of DDT on the neurodevelopmental outcome in the short term. However, considering the potential harm of high cumulative doses of dexamethasone on the developing brain, further studies are needed to determine the optimal dosage of DDT to be administered for the prevention of BPD.

Penile length, digit length, and anogenital distance according to birth weight in newborn male infants.

PURPOSE: Anogential distance (AGD) and the 2:4 digit length ratio appear to provide a reliable guide to fetal androgen exposure. We intended to investigate the current status of penile size and the relationship between penile length and AGD or digit length according to birth weight in Korean newborn infants. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between May 2013 and February 2014, among a total of 78 newborn male infants, 55 infants were prospectively included in this study. Newborn male infants with a gestational age of 38 to 42 weeks and birth weight>2.5 kg were assigned to the NW group (n=24) and those with a gestational age<38 weeks and birth weight<2.5 kg were assigned to the LW group (n=31). Penile size and other variables were compared between the two groups. RESULTS: Stretched penile length of the NW group was 3.3 ± 0.2 cm, which did not differ significantly from that reported in 1987. All parameters including height, weight, penile length, testicular size, AGD, and digit length were significantly lower in the LW group than in the NW group. However, there were no significant differences in AGD ratio or 2:4 digit length ratio between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: The penile length of newborn infants has not changed over the last quarter century in Korea. With normal penile appearance, the AGD ratio and 2:4 digit length ratio are consistent irrespective of birth weight, whereas AGD, digit length, and penile length are significantly smaller in newborns with low birth weight.

Clinical characteristics and outcome of incidental atrial septal openings in very low birth weight infants.

BACKGROUND: Atrial septal openings (ASOs) are very common in premature infants. OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and natural course of ASOs in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants diagnosed in the first week of life and the association of ASOs with various clinical factors. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 217 infants born with a weight of <1,500 g between January 2007 and December 2011. Echocardiography was conducted within the first week of life in all infants. Clinical factors were compared between infants with ASO and those with an intact atrial septum. ASO closure was confirmed by echocardiography at the 3-month follow-up and subsequently every 6 months. RESULTS: The incidence of ASOs was 40.3% in VLBW infants. Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) was associated with a higher incidence of ASO in a multivariate analysis (OR 4.005, 95% CI 2.015-7.960, p < 0.001), and PDA was a predictor of early ASO closure. The rate of oxygen requirement for at least 28 days was higher in infants with ASO, whereas oxygen dependency at 36 weeks' postmenstrual age did not differ between the infant groups. The mean time of closure was 5.8 ± 7.1 months of age (range 0-36). All followed infants showed spontaneous closure within 3 years. CONCLUSIONS: ASOs occur at a relatively high incidence in VLBW infants, but most of these close spontaneously within 3 years. PDA was predictive of ASO at the first echocardiography but did not delay ASO closure. The ASOs in VLBW infants were not a significant cause of concern.