Effect of exercise intensity and apnea on splenic contraction and hemoglobin increase in well-trained cross-country skiers.

The human spleen acts as a reservoir for red blood cells, which is mobilized into the systemic circulation during various conditions such as hypoxia and physical exertion. Cross-country (XC) skiers, renowned for their exceptional aerobic capacity, are regularly exposed to high-intensity exercise and local oxygen deficits. We investigated a putative dose-dependent relationship between splenic contraction and concomitant hemoglobin concentration ([Hb]) elevation across four exercise intensities in well-trained XC skiers. Fourteen male XC skiers voluntarily participated in a 2-day protocol, encompassing a serial apnea test and a V ˙ O2max test (day 1), followed by three submaximal exercise intensities on a roller skiing treadmill corresponding to 55, 70, and 85% of V ˙ O2max (day 2). Spleen volume was measured via ultrasonic imaging, and venous blood samples were used to determine [Hb] levels. Baseline spleen volume was similar (266(35) mL) for all conditions (NS). Notably, all conditions induced significant splenic contractions and transient [Hb] elevations. The V ˙ O2max test exhibited the most pronounced splenic contraction (35.8%, p < 0.001) and a [Hb] increase of 8.1%, while the 85% exercise intensity led to 27.1% contraction and the greatest [Hb] increase (8.3%, < 0.001) compared to baseline. The apnea test induced relatively smaller responses (splenic contraction: 20.4%, [Hb] = 3.3%, p < 0.001), akin to the response observed at the 70% exercise intensity (splenic contraction = 23%, [Hb] = 6.4%, p < 0,001) and 55% (splenic contraction = 20.0%, [Hb] = 4.8%, p < 0.001). This study shows a discernible dose-dependent relationship between splenic contraction and [Hb] increase with levels of exercise, effectively distinguishing between submaximal and maximal exercise intensity.

Using Multivariate Data Analysis to Project Performance in Biathletes and Cross-Country Skiers.

PURPOSE: To determine whether competitive performance, as defined by International Biathlon Union (IBU) and International Ski Federation (FIS) points in biathlon and cross-country (XC) skiing, respectively, can be projected using a combination of anthropometric and physiological metrics. Shooting accuracy was also included in the biathlon models. METHODS: Data were analyzed using multivariate methods from 45 (23 female and 22 male) biathletes and 202 (86 female and 116 male) XC skiers who were all members of senior national teams, national development teams, or ski-university or high school invite-only programs (age range: 16-36 y). Anthropometric and physiological characteristics were assessed via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, respectively. Shooting accuracy was assessed via an outdoor standardized testing protocol. RESULTS: Valid projective models were identified for female biathletes' IBU points (R2 = .80/Q2 = .65) and female XC skiers' FIS distance (R2 = .81/Q2 = .74) and sprint (R2 = .81/Q2 = .70) points. No valid models were identified for the men. The most important variables for the projection of IBU points were shooting accuracy, speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1, peak aerobic power, and lean mass. The most important variables for the projection of FIS distance and sprint points were speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1 and peak aerobic power. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the relative importance of specific anthropometric, physiological, and shooting-accuracy metrics in female biathletes and XC skiers. The data can help to identify the specific metrics that should be targeted when monitoring athletes' progression and designing training plans.

Enhanced splenic volume and contraction in elite endurance athletes.

Splenic contraction, which leads to ejection of stored erythrocytes, is greater in athletes involved in regular freediving or high-altitude activities. As this response facilitates oxygen-carrying capacity, similar characteristics may be expected of elite endurance athletes. Therefore, our aims were to compare resting and apnea-induced splenic volume in endurance athletes and untrained individuals, and to assess the athletes' exercise-induced splenic volume. Twelve elite biathletes (7 women) and 12 controls (6 women) performed a maximal effort apnea in a seated position. In addition, the biathletes completed a maximal roller-skiing time trial. Splenic dimensions were measured by ultrasonic imaging for subsequent volume calculations, whereas Hb was analyzed from capillary blood samples and cardiorespiratory variables were monitored continuously. Baseline splenic volume was larger in the biathletes (214 ± 56 mL) compared with controls (157 ± 39 mL, P = 0.008) and apnea-induced splenic contraction was also greater in the biathletes (46 ± 20 mL vs. 30 ± 16 mL, P = 0.035). Hb increased immediately after apnea in the biathletes (4.5 ± 4.8%, P = 0.029) but not in the controls (-0.7 ± 3.1%, P = 0.999). Increases in exercise-induced splenic contraction (P = 0.008) and Hb (P = 0.001) were greater compared with the apnea-induced responses among the athletes. Baseline splenic volume tended to be correlated with V̇o2max (r = 0.584, P = 0.059). We conclude that elite biathletes have greater splenic volume with a greater ability to contract and elevate Hb compared with untrained individuals. These characteristics may transiently enhance O2-carrying capacity and possibly increase O2 uptake, thereby helping biathletes to cope with high intermittent O2 demands and severe O2 deficits that occur during biathlon training and competition.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study demonstrates that elite biathletes have larger splenic volume, apnea-induced splenic contraction, and Hb elevation compared with untrained individuals, which is likely functional to cope with high O2 demands and substantial O2 deficits. We believe that enhanced splenic contraction may be of importance during competitions involving cross-country skiing, to regulate circulating Hb and enhance O2-carrying capacity, which may protect [Formula: see text] and increase O2 uptake.

Anthropometric, Physiological, and Performance Developments in Cross-country Skiers.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to describe changes in laboratory-assessed anthropometric and physiological characteristics, training volumes, and competitive performance in national development-team cross-country skiers over a 25-month period, and to analyze whether changes in competitive performance could be predicted by changes in laboratory-assessed qualities and training volumes. METHODS: Data collected over 25 months from 30 national development-team cross-country skiers (14 women, 16 men; age, 18-23 yr) were analyzed retrospectively using multivariate statistics. Anthropometric and physiological characteristics were assessed via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, respectively. Total training volumes and distributions of low- and high-intensity training were analyzed from online training diaries, and competitive performance was determined by International Ski Federation (FIS) distance and sprint points. RESULTS: Whole- and upper-body lean mass increased in the full cohort of skiers (n = 30; both P < 0.05), whereas lower-body lean mass, whole-body fat mass, speed and oxygen uptake (V˙O2) at a blood lactate concentration (BLa) of 2 and 4 mmol·L-1, as well as time-trial completion time, power output, and peak V˙O2, improved in the women only (all P < 0.05). Valid predictive models were identified for female skiers' best FIS distance points (R2 = 0.81/Q2 = 0.51) and changes in FIS distance points (R2 = 0.83/Q2 = 0.54), with body mass, fat mass, lean mass, V˙O2peak, and speed at a BLa of 4 mmol·L-1 identified as consistently important variables for projection. CONCLUSIONS: The valid prediction of competitive performance was achieved for women only in distance events. This study suggests that improvements in body composition and aerobic capacity may be more beneficial for elite female development-level skiers than for their male counterparts. These results have implications for athlete selection and performance development.

Laboratory-Based Factors Predicting Skiing Performance in Female and Male Biathletes.

Skiing in biathlon is a high-intensity, intermittent endurance discipline. This study aimed to evaluate the relationships between laboratory-derived physiological variables and skiing performance during a field-based biathlon competition (BC) for female and male biathletes. Fourteen female (23 ± 3 year, V ˙ O2max 56 ± 4 mL·kg-1·min-1) and 14 male (24 ± 4 year, V ˙ O2max 66 ± 3 mL·kg-1·min-1) biathletes performed a submaximal incremental test and a maximal time-trial (TT) using treadmill roller-skiing for the assessment of oxygen uptake at a lactate threshold of 4 mmol·L-1 ( V ˙ O2@4mmol), gross efficiency (GE), aerobic (MRae) and anaerobic (MRan) metabolic rates, peak oxygen consumption ( V ˙ O2peak), anaerobic capacity and TT performance. Field-based skiing performance was assessed during a BC. The TT and BC skiing performances were significantly correlated in both sexes (r = 0.68-0.69, p < 0.01). V ˙ O2peak (31/21%), anaerobic capacity (1/0%), and GE (35/32%) explained 67 and 52% of the variance in BC skiing performance for the females (p < 0.01) and males (p = 0.051), respectively. A second model showed that V ˙ O2@4mmol (30/35%), anaerobic capacity (0/0%) and GE (37/13%) explained 67 and 48% of the variance in BC skiing performance for the females (p < 0.01) and males (p = 0.077), respectively. Results of this study suggest that a high V ˙ O2@4mmol and GE, but not anaerobic capacity, are important for BC skiing performance, especially for females. In addition, a laboratory-based TT could be useful for regular laboratory testing of biathletes due to its relationship with field-based skiing performance in biathlon.