FATAL ACUTE HEMOLYSIS FOLLOWING TRIAZOLE THERAPY IN AFRICAN PENGUINS (SPHENISCUS DEMERSUS).

Aspergillosis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in penguins, with triazole antifungal drugs being commonly used for prophylaxis and treatment. This report describes 15 cases of fatal hemolysis associated with liquid itraconazole and voriconazole formulations administered to African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) from four institutions. All penguins underwent stressful events (e.g. relocation, induced molt) and were administered commercial liquid itraconazole formulations or compounded voriconazole liquid suspension. Observed clinical signs in affected penguins prior to death included hyporexia, weight loss, lethargy, dyspnea, red-tinged droppings, and obtunded mentation. Intra- and extravascular hemolysis and hemoglobinuric nephrosis were the primary pathologic manifestations on postmortem examination. The concentration-dependent hemolytic potentials of itraconazole, voriconazole, and commercial and compounded vehicle suspensions were evaluated in vitro by exposing chicken whole blood as a surrogate for penguin blood. Hemoglobin content in blood plasma was then measured by spectrophotometry. Neither itraconazole nor voriconazole alone induced hemolysis in vitro. The vehicle ingredients sorbitol and hydromellose induced hemolysis, but not at predicted plasma levels in chicken erythrocytes, suggesting neither the azole antifungals nor their major vehicles alone were likely to contribute to hemolysis in vivo in these penguins. Potential mechanisms of toxicosis include generation of an unmeasured reactive metabolite causing hemolysis, preexisting erythrocyte fragility, or species-specific differences in hemolytic thresholds that were not assessed in the chicken erythrocyte model. More research is needed on the potential for toxicosis of azole antifungal drugs and carrier molecules in this and other avian species.

Temperature-associated virulence, species susceptibility and interspecies transmission of a Lactococcus petauri strain from rainbow trout.

Lactococcus petauri is an important emergent aquaculture pathogen in the USA. To better understand environmental conditions conducive to piscine lactococcosis and the susceptibility of fish species, laboratory-controlled challenges were used as models of infection. Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss maintained at 13 or 18°C were challenged by intracoelomic (ICe) injection with 101, 103 or 105 colony-forming units per fish (CFU fish-1) and monitored for 21 d. At 13°C, trout experienced mortalities of 7, 7 and 0%, and bacterial persistence of 0, 20 and 0% in survivors, respectively. When exposed to the same bacterial doses, trout maintained at 18°C experienced mortalities of 59, 84 and 91%, and bacterial persistence of 60, 66 and 0% in survivors, confirming a significant role of temperature in the pathogenesis of lactococcosis. Additionally, the susceptibility of rainbow trout, Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, white sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus, Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, and koi Cyprinus carpio to infection by L. petauri was compared using ICe challenges at 18°C. Trout and salmon experienced 96 and 56% cumulative mortality, respectively, and 17% of surviving salmon remained persistently infected. There were no mortalities in the other fish species, and no culturable bacteria recovered at the end of the challenge. However, when surviving fish were used in further cohabitation trials, naïve trout housed with previously exposed tilapia exhibited 6% mortality, demonstrating that non-salmonids can become sub-clinical carriers of this pathogen. The data obtained provide useful information regarding temperature-associated virulence, fish species susceptibility, and potential carrier transmission of L. petauri that can be used in the development of better management practices to protect against piscine lactococcosis.

Detection and virulence of Lactococcus garvieae and L. petauri from four lakes in southern California.

OBJECTIVE: The first objective of the study aimed to detect the presence of Lactococcus petauri, L. garvieae, and L. formosensis in fish (n = 359) and environmental (n = 161) samples from four lakes near an affected fish farm in California during an outbreak in 2020. The second objective was to compare the virulence of the Lactococcus spp. in Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and Largemouth Bass Micropterus salmoides. METHODS: Standard bacterial culture methods were used to isolate Lactococcus spp. from brain and posterior kidney of sampled fish from the four lakes. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was utilized to detect Lactococcus spp. DNA in fish tissues and environmental samples from the four lakes. Laboratory controlled challenges were conducted by injecting fish intracoelomically with representative isolates of L. petauri (n = 17), L. garvieae (n = 2), or L. formosensis (n = 4), and monitored for 14 days postchallenge (dpc). RESULT: Lactococcus garvieae was isolated from the brains of two Largemouth Bass in one of the lakes. Lactococcus spp. were detected in 14 fish (8 Bluegills Lepomis macrochirus and 6 Largemouth Bass) from 3 out of the 4 lakes using a qPCR assay. Of the collected environmental samples, all 4 lakes tested positive for Lactococcus spp. in the soil samples, while 2 of the 4 lakes tested positive in the water samples through qPCR. Challenged Largemouth Bass did not show any signs of infection postinjection throughout the challenge period. Rainbow Trout infected with L. petauri showed clinical signs within 3 dpc and presented a significantly higher cumulative mortality (62.4%; p < 0.0001) at 14 dpc when compared to L. garvieae (0%) and L. formosensis (7.5%) treatments. CONCLUSION: The study suggests that qPCR can be used for environmental DNA monitoring of Lactococcus spp. and demonstrates virulence diversity between the etiological agents of piscine lactococcosis.

Comparative Evaluation of Booster Vaccine Efficacy by Intracoelomic Injection and Immersion with a Whole-Cell Killed Vaccine against Lactococcus petauri Infection in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

Lactococcus petauri is an important emergent bacterial pathogen of salmonids in the USA. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the protection conferred to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) against L. petauri by formalin-killed vaccines in immersion and injectable forms, as well as the enhanced protection afforded by booster vaccination. In the first challenge, fish were immunized via intracoelomic injection (IC) or immersion (Imm) routes alone. Approximately 418 degree days (Temperature in degree Celsius × days post-immunization) (dd) Imm, or 622 dd IC post-vaccination, fish were challenged via IC with wild-type L. petauri. In the second experiment, initial Imm vaccination was followed by booster vaccination via Imm or IC routes 273 dd post-immunization along with appropriate PBS controls. The various vaccination protocol efficacies were evaluated by challenging fish with L. petauri by cohabitation with diseased fish 399 dd post-booster administration. A relative percent survival (RPS) of 89.5% and 28% was recorded in the IC and Imm single immunization treatments, respectively. In the second study, an RPS of 97.5%, 10.2%, 2.6% and -10.1% plus approximately 0%, 50%, 20%, and 30% bacterial persistence was recorded in the Imm immunized + IC boosted, Imm immunized + mock IC boosted, Imm immunized + Imm boosted, and Imm immunized + mock Imm boosted treatments, respectively. Only the Imm immunized + IC injection boosted treatments provided significant protection when compared to unvaccinated and challenged treatments (p < 0.05). In conclusion, although both Imm and IC vaccines appear safe for trout, the inactivated Imm vaccines seem to provide only mild and temporary protection against lactococcosis; whereas IC immunized trout develop a significantly stronger protective response in both challenges.

Efficacy of a multidose acyclovir protocol against cyprinid herpesvirus 3 infection in koi (Cyprinus carpio).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of a multidose acyclovir protocol on koi herpesvirus (KHV) viral load and mortality in a cohabitation challenge. ANIMALS: 180 koi fish. PROCEDURES: Forty fish (shedders) were immersed in a 0.5 KHV plaque-forming units/mL static bath for 8 hours. Mock shedders were treated similarly but exposed to cell culture media. KHV shedders were then transferred into 8 tanks (5 shedders per tank) containing 10 naïve fish (cohabitants) each. Fish in the acyclovir group (AT) received a 10 mg/kg acyclovir intracoelomic injection 1, 3, and 6 days after the first confirmed KHV mortality. Positive controls (PC) were treated similarly but received sterile saline injections. Negative controls (NC) were exposed to mock shedders. Morbidity and mortality were evaluated daily for 50 days post-challenge. Quantitative PCR was used to determine viral load in the gill biopsies of shedders and cohabitants collected at days 19 (T1), 22 (T2), 25 (T3), 34 (T4), and 50 (T5) post-challenge. RESULTS: Survival curves analyzed by the Gehan-Breslow-Wilcoxon method revealed a delayed onset of mortalities and a significantly lower KHV load at T2 and T3 detected in AT cohabitant fish (P = .042) compared to PC group. However, there were no significant differences in overall mortality or viral loads at T5. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The acyclovir protocol used in this study did not control viral infection or mortality at the end of the 50-day trial. Shorter intervals between injections could improve outcomes, but the additional stress inflicted by handling should be considered. Exploring other therapeutic alternatives and doses is warranted.

Isolation and characterization of Lactococcus garvieae from rainbow trout, Onchorhyncus mykiss, from California, USA.

Lactococcus garvieae is an emergent bacterial pathogen of salmonid fish in North America that causes acute infections particularly at water temperatures above 15°C. During 2020, L. garvieae was detected in rainbow trout, Onchorhyncus mykiss, cultured in Southern California and the Eastern Sierras. Infected fish exhibited high mortalities and nonspecific clinical signs of lethargy, erratic swimming, dark skin pigmentation, and exophthalmia. Macroscopic changes included external and internal hemorrhages, mainly in the eyes, liver, coelomic fat, intestine, and brain. Histological examination revealed splenitis, branchitis, panophthalmitis, hepatitis, enteritis, and coelomitis, with variable degrees of tissue damage among evaluated fish. Pure colonies of L. garvieae were isolated from infected trout and specific PCR primers for L. garvieae confirmed the preliminary diagnosis. Multilocus sequence analysis showed that the strains recovered from diseased trout represent a novel genetic group. Isolates were able to form biofilms within 24 h that increased their resistance to disinfection by hydrogen peroxide. Laboratory challenge methods for inducing lactococcosis in steelhead trout, O. mykiss, were evaluated by intracoelomic injection with serial dilutions of L. garvieae. The median lethal dose 21 days post challenge was ∼20 colony-forming units/fish. Experimentally infected trout presented similar clinical signs, gross changes, and microscopic lesions as those with natural disease, fulfilling Koch's postulates and demonstrating the high virulence of the recovered strains.

Gut uropathogen abundance is a risk factor for development of bacteriuria and urinary tract infection.

The origin of most bacterial infections in the urinary tract is often presumed to be the gut. Herein, we investigate the relationship between the gut microbiota and future development of bacteriuria and urinary tract infection (UTI). We perform gut microbial profiling using 16S rRNA gene deep sequencing on 510 fecal specimens from 168 kidney transplant recipients and metagenomic sequencing on a subset of fecal specimens and urine supernatant specimens. We report that a 1% relative gut abundance of Escherichia is an independent risk factor for Escherichia bacteriuria and UTI and a 1% relative gut abundance of Enterococcus is an independent risk factor for Enterococcus bacteriuria. Strain analysis establishes a close strain level alignment between species found in the gut and in the urine in the same subjects. Our results support a gut microbiota-UTI axis, suggesting that modulating the gut microbiota may be a potential novel strategy to prevent UTIs.