Optimized configuration for liquid crystal Stokes polarimeters in the presence of fast-axis orientation errors.

We present an optimal configuration for Stokes polarimeters based on liquid crystal variable retarders, with the minimum number of measurements. Due to the inherent variations of the director orientation of the liquid crystal molecules, we propose a configuration that minimizes the sensibility of the polarimeter to fast-axis variations. For the optimization we consider a scheme that maximizes the volume of a tetrahedron inscribed in the Poincare sphere, to address additive and Poisson noise, with one of the vertices invariant to changes in the axis positions. We provide numerical simulations, considering misalignment errors, to analyze the robustness of the configuration. The results show that the proposed configuration helps to maintain the volume enclosed by the tetrahedron with high tolerance to fast-axis orientation errors. The condition number will remain below 3.07 for common misalignment errors and below 1.88 for more controlled liquid crystals. This optimization will improve the performance of liquid crystals polarimeters, with a more robust configuration that also considers misalignment errors, beyond additive and Poisson noise.

Unraveling the physical information of depolarizers.

The link between depolarization measures and physical nature and structure of material media inducing depolarization is nowadays an open question. This article shows how the joint use of two complementary sets of depolarizing metrics, namely the Indices of polarimetric purity and the Components of purity, are sufficient to completely describe the integral depolarizing properties of a sample. Based on a collection of illustrative and representative polarimetric configurations, a clear and meaningful physical interpretation of such metrics is provided, thus extending the current tools and comprehension for the study and analysis of the depolarizing properties of material media. This study could be of interest to those users dealing with depolarization or depolarizing samples.

Influence of temporal averaging in the performance of a rotating retarder imaging Stokes polarimeter.

We study the optimum operating conditions for a rotating retarder fixed polarizer (RRFP) when the measurements are not quasi-instantaneous but time-averaged. We obtain the optimum retardance and retarder orientations as a function of the integrated angle interval. We also study how the increase in the number of time-averaged measurements leads to a better equally weighted variance (EWV) value, and thus, to a better performance of the polarimeter in terms of noise amplification for the case of additive noise. Two different analyzers configurations are studied in this work: uniformly spaced retarder angles and when measurements are taken at optimum angles (non-uniformly spaced angles). We also consider the case of polychromatic illumination. We discuss the best measurement conditions in terms of the signal-to-noise ratio depending on whether there is a fixed or a limited amount of photons per measurement.

Methods for the performance enhancement and the error characterization of large diameter ground-based diffractive telescopes.

This paper is devoted to the improvement of ground-based telescopes based on diffractive primary lenses, which provide larger aperture and relaxed surface tolerance compared to non-diffractive telescopes. We performed two different studies devised to thoroughly characterize and improve the performance of ground-based diffractive telescopes. On the one hand, we experimentally validated the suitability of the stitching error theory, useful to characterize the error performance of subaperture diffractive telescopes. On the other hand, we proposed a novel ground-based telescope incorporated in a Cassegrain architecture, leading to a telescope with enhanced performance. To test the stitching error theory, a 300 mm diameter, 2000 mm focal length transmissive stitching diffractive telescope, based on a three-belt subaperture primary lens, was designed and implemented. The telescope achieves a 78 cy/mm resolution within 0.15 degree field of view while the working wavelength ranges from 582.8 nm to 682.8 nm without any stitching error. However, the long optical track (35.49 m) introduces air turbulence that reduces the final images contrast in the ground-based test. To enhance this result, a same diameter compacted Cassegrain ground-based diffractive (CGD) telescope with the total track distance of 1.267 m, was implemented within the same wavelength. The ground-based CGD telescope provides higher resolution and better contrast than the transmissive configuration. Star and resolution tests were experimentally performed to compare the CGD and the transmissive configurations, providing the suitability of the proposed ground-based CGD telescope.

Dual polarization split lenses.

We report the realization of polarization sensitive split lens configurations. While split lenses can be used to easily generate different types of controlled structured light patterns, their realization has been limited so far to scalar beams. Here we propose and experimentally demonstrate their generalization to vectorial split lenses, leading to light patterns with customized intensity and state of polarization. We demonstrate how these polarization split lenses can be experimentally implemented by means of an optical system using two liquid crystal spatial light modulators, each one phase modulating one orthogonal polarization component. As a result, we demonstrate the experimental generation of vectorial beams with different shapes generated with these dual polarization split lenses. Excellent experimental results are provided in each case. The proposed technique is a simple method to generate structured light beams with polarization diversity, with potential applications in polarimetry, customized illuminators or quantum optics.

Synthesis and characterization of depolarizing samples based on the indices of polarimetric purity.

In this work, we discuss the interest of using the indices of polarimetric purity (IPPs) as a criterion for the characterization and classification of depolarizing samples. We prove how differences in the depolarizing capability of samples, not seen by the commonly used depolarization index PΔ, are identified by the IPPs. The above-stated result is analyzed from a theoretical point of view and experimentally verified through a set of polarimetric measurements. We show how the approach presented here can be useful in easily synthetizing depolarizing samples with controlled depolarizing features, just by properly combining low-cost fully polarizing elements (such as linear retarders or polarizers).

Error analysis of large-diameter subaperture stitching Fresnel diffractive elements.

Image quality is dramatically influenced by the stitching errors in a large-diameter stitching Fresnel lens. In this paper, we studied three kinds of errors that can cover all stitching errors in a Cornwell deployed Fresnel lens. In particular, a 300-mm-diameter, three-belt deployed Fresnel diffractive lens was simulated to investigate the stitching error. The star test and the resolution board test experiments were conducted, and the experimental results fit the simulation results. This means that our error analysis theory and simulation method are efficient and accurate and could be used to guide future super-large aperture stitching.

Complete snapshot Stokes polarimeter based on a single biaxial crystal.

We propose a new complete snapshot Stokes polarimeter based on a single biaxial crystal. It presents different strengths (snapshot, complete polarimetric measurements, large data redundancy, and high sensitivity) in a simple and compact optical arrangement. The polarimeter is experimentally implemented and analyzed in terms of accuracy and repeatability.

Use of optical spacers to enhance infrared Mueller ellipsometry sensitivity: application to the characterization of organic thin films.

Mueller ellipsometry in the mid-infrared (IR) spectral range can be used to obtain information about chemical composition through the vibrational spectra of samples. In the case of very thin films (<100 nm), the ellipsometric spectral features due to vibrational absorption are in general quite weak, and sometimes they are hidden by the noise in the measured data. In this work, we present one method based on the use of optical spacers as a tool to enhance the sensitivity of IR Mueller ellipsometry. An optical spacer is a thin film made of a known material which is between the substrate and the layer of interest. We show that, when the thickness of the two layers fulfills a given condition, the spectral features due to vibrational absorptions are enhanced. We explain the enhancement effect in terms of the Airy formula. The theoretical discussion is illustrated with two examples. We analyzed polystyrene thin films deposited on silicon wafers. Some of the wafers were covered by a thin film of thermal silicon dioxide (SiO2), which was used as a spacer. The results show the suitability of the proposed technique to overcome the lack of sensitivity in ellipsometric measurements when it comes to working with either very thin films or materials with low absorption.

Optimization, tolerance analysis and implementation of a Stokes polarimeter based on the conical refraction phenomenon.

Recently, we introduced the basic concepts behind a new polarimeter device based on conical refraction (CR), which presents several appealing features compared to standard polarimeters. To name some of them, CR polarimeters retrieve the polarization state of an input light beam with a snapshot measurement, allow for substantially enhancing the data redundancy without increasing the measuring time, and avoid instrumental errors owing to rotating elements or phase-to-voltage calibration typical from dynamic devices. In this article, we present a comprehensive study of the optimization, robustness and parameters tolerance of CR based polarimeters. In addition, a particular CR based polarimetric architecture is experimentally implemented, and some concerns and recommendations are provided. Finally, the implemented polarimeter is experimentally tested by measuring different states of polarization, including fully and partially polarized light.

Inline digital holographic movie based on a double-sideband filter.

This Letter proposes a new optical architecture based on a double-sideband filter, simultaneously applied at the Fourier plane, for inline digital holography. The proposed architecture not only allows removal of the conjugate images in the reconstruction process but also reduces the distortions that usually appear when using a single-sideband filter. We first introduce the mathematical model that explains the method and then describe the optical setup used for the implementation. The optical system includes a parallel aligned liquid crystal display placed at the Fourier plane that simultaneously filters positive and negative frequencies, when properly combined with linear polarizers. This feature makes the device useful to register dynamic processes. Finally, we tested the setup by registering a holographic movie of microscopic moving objects placed at different planes.

Arbitrary state of polarization with customized degree of polarization generator.

An optical setup able to generate arbitrary states of polarization (SOPs) with customized degree of polarization is presented in this Letter. Compared with the few alternatives existing in literature, it presents an easy-to-build optical setup and leads to a superior performance. In fact, experimental results are presented, providing an accurate control for the generation of SOPs (maximum error of 1.7% and 3.3% for ellipticity and azimuth, respectively) as well as for the associated degree of polarization (full experimental variation from 1 up to 0.003, with a 1.7% maximum error). The system proposed may be useful for different applications, for example, for polarimeters testing, speckle metrology, and biological applications.

Use of ferroelectric liquid crystal panels to control state and degree of polarization in light beams.

We propose a new technique that is able to generate a light beam with a controlled state of polarization (SoP) and a customized degree of polarization (DoP). The technique relies on the fact that effective depolarization can be achieved by temporally averaging a time-dependent SoP. Our proposed setup is based on a ferroelectric liquid crystal panel of retardance λ/2, with a fast polarization switching capability (33 Hz). A mathematical basis describing the experiment is given. In addition, simulation data is discussed, showing the possibility of generating any SoP with full control of the DoP. Finally, to prove the potential of the invention proposed, experimental results are provided as well, reaching an experimental minimum DoP of 0.14.

Conical refraction as a tool for polarization metrology.

A method for polarization metrology based on the conical refraction (CR) phenomenon, occurring in biaxial crystals, is reported. CR transforms an input Gaussian beam into a light ring whose intensity distribution is linked to the incoming polarization. We present the design of a division-of-amplitude complete polarimeter composed of two biaxial crystals, whose measurement principle is based on the CR phenomenon. This design corresponds to a static polarimeter, that is, without mechanical movements or electrical signal addressing. Only one division-of-amplitude device is required, besides the two biaxial crystals, to completely characterize any state of polarization, including partially polarized and unpolarized states. In addition, a mathematical model describing the system is included. Experimental images of the intensity distribution related to different input polarization states are provided. These intensity patterns are compared with simulated values, proving the potential of polarimeters based on biaxial crystals.

Optimization and tolerance analysis of a polarimeter with ferroelectric liquid crystals.

We present the design of Stokes and Mueller polarimeters based on ferroelectric liquid crystal (FLC) panels. The instrument is complete and takes time-sequential measurements. A FLC device is modeled as a uniaxial birefringent waveplate with two stable optical axis orientations switchable by a squared electrical signal. The optical parameters of the LC device (retardance and the two stable orientations of the fast axis) are calibrated. Then the orientations of the optical elements of the setup are optimized in order to minimize the propagation of the noise. We also provide a tolerance study to achieve 2% accuracy for the Stokes vector and Mueller matrix metrology. These analyses are conducted as a function of the incident state of polarization and of the Mueller matrix to be measured, respectively. The optimized system is implemented and calibrated in the laboratory. We evaluate its repeatability over 24 h of operation, and the dependence with the temperature is discussed. In addition, we include a study related to the speed of taking the measurements. Finally, we provide some experimental measurements of different Stokes vectors and Mueller matrices, validating the proposed prototypes.

Optimizing the classification of biological tissues using machine learning models based on polarized data.

Polarimetric data is nowadays used to build recognition models for the characterization of organic tissues or the early detection of some diseases. Different Mueller matrix-derived polarimetric observables, which allow a physical interpretation of a specific characteristic of samples, are proposed in literature to feed the required recognition algorithms. However, they are obtained through mathematical transformations of the Mueller matrix and this process may loss relevant sample information in search of physical interpretation. In this work, we present a thorough comparative between 12 classification models based on different polarimetric datasets to find the ideal polarimetric framework to construct tissues classification models. The study is conducted on the experimental Mueller matrices images measured on different tissues: muscle, tendon, myotendinous junction and bone; from a collection of 165 ex-vivo chicken thighs. Three polarimetric datasets are analyzed: (A) a selection of most representative metrics presented in literature; (B) Mueller matrix elements; and (C) the combination of (A) and (B) sets. Results highlight the importance of using raw Mueller matrix elements for the design of classification models.

Automatic pseudo-coloring approaches to improve visual perception and contrast in polarimetric images of biological tissues.

Imaging polarimetry methods have proved their suitability to enhance the image contrast between tissues and structures in organic samples, or even to reveal structures hidden in regular intensity images. These methods are nowadays used in a wide range of biological applications, as for the early diagnosis of different pathologies. To include the discriminatory potential of different polarimetric observables in a single image, a suitable strategy reported in literature consists in associating different observables to different color channels, giving rise to pseudo-colored images helping the visualization of different tissues in samples. However, previous reported polarimetric based pseudo-colored images of tissues are mostly based on simple linear combinations of polarimetric observables whose weights are set ad-hoc, and thus, far from optimal approaches. In this framework, we propose the implementation of two pseudo-colored methods. One is based on the Euclidean distances of actual values of pixels and an average value taken over a given region of interest in the considered image. The second method is based on the likelihood for each pixel to belong to a given class. Such classes being defined on the basis of a statistical model that describes the statistical distribution of values of the pixels in the considered image. The methods are experimentally validated on four different biological samples, two of animal origin and two of vegetal origin. Results provide the potential of the methods to be applied in biomedical and botanical applications.

Polarimetric observables for the enhanced visualization of plant diseases.

This paper highlights the potential of using polarimetric methods for the inspection of plant diseased tissues. We show how depolarizing observables are a suitable tool for the accurate discrimination between healthy and diseased tissues due to the pathogen infection of plant samples. The analysis is conducted on a set of different plant specimens showing various disease symptoms and infection stages. By means of a complete image Mueller polarimeter, we measure the experimental Mueller matrices of the samples, from which we calculate a set of metrics analyzing the depolarization content of the inspected leaves. From calculated metrics, we demonstrate, in a qualitative and quantitative way, how depolarizing information of vegetal tissues leads to the enhancement of image contrast between healthy and diseased tissues, as well as to the revelation of wounded regions which cannot be detected by means of regular visual inspections. Moreover, we also propose a pseudo-colored image method, based on the depolarizing metrics, capable to further enhance the visual image contrast between healthy and diseased regions in plants. The ability of proposed methods to characterize plant diseases (even at early stages of infection) may be of interest for preventing yield losses due to different plant pathogens.

Optimized Stokes polarimeters based on a single twisted nematic liquid-crystal device for the minimization of noise propagation.

This work evidences the suitability of applying a single twisted nematic liquid-crystal (TN-LC) device to obtain dynamic polarimeters with high accuracy and repeatability. Different Stokes polarimeter setups based on a TN-LC device are optimized, leading to the minimization of the noise propagated from intensity measurements to the Stokes vector calculations. To this aim, we revise the influence of working out of normal incidence and of performing a double pass of the light beam through the LC device. In addition, because transmissive TN-LC devices act as elliptical retarders, an extra study is performed. It analyzes the influence of projecting the light exiting from the TN-LC device over elliptical states of polarization. Finally, diverse optimized polarimeters are experimentally implemented and validated by measuring different states of partially and fully polarized light. The analysis is conducted both for monochromatic (He-Ne laser) and LED light sources, proving the potential of polarimeters based on a single TN-LC device.

Polarimetric imaging microscopy for advanced inspection of vegetal tissues.

Optical microscopy techniques for plant inspection benefit from the fact that at least one of the multiple properties of light (intensity, phase, wavelength, polarization) may be modified by vegetal tissues. Paradoxically, polarimetric microscopy although being a mature technique in biophotonics, is not so commonly used in botany. Importantly, only specific polarimetric observables, as birefringence or dichroism, have some presence in botany studies, and other relevant metrics, as those based on depolarization, are underused. We present a versatile method, based on a representative selection of polarimetric observables, to obtain and to analyse images of plants which bring significant information about their structure and/or the spatial organization of their constituents (cells, organelles, among other structures). We provide a thorough analysis of polarimetric microscopy images of sections of plant leaves which are compared with those obtained by other commonly used microscopy techniques in plant biology. Our results show the interest of polarimetric microscopy for plant inspection, as it is non-destructive technique, highly competitive in economical and time consumption, and providing advantages compared to standard non-polarizing techniques.