Community testing practices for autism within the autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network.

BACKGROUND: No data exist at the population level on what tests are used to aid in the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in community practice. OBJECTIVES: To describe autism spectrum disorder testing practices to inform autism spectrum disorder identification efforts. METHODS: Data are from the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, a multi-site surveillance system reporting prevalence estimates and characteristics of 8-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder. Percentages of children with autism spectrum disorder who received any autism spectrum disorder test or a 'gold standard' test were calculated by site, sex, race, median household income, and intellectual ability status. Risk ratios were calculated to compare group differences. RESULTS: Of 5058 8-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder across 11 sites, 3236 (64.0%) had a record of any autism spectrum disorder test and 2136 (42.2%) had a 'gold standard' ADOS or ADI-R test. Overall, 115 children (2.3%) had both the ADOS and ADI-R in their records. Differences persisted across race, median household income, and intellectual ability status. Asian/Pacific Islander children had the highest percent receiving any ASD test (71.8%; other groups range: 57.4-66.0%) and White children had the highest percent receiving 'gold standard' tests (46.4%; other groups range: 35.6-43.2%). Children in low-income neighbourhoods had a lower percent of any test (62.5%) and 'gold standard' tests (39.4%) compared to medium (70.2% and 47.5%, respectively) and high (69.6% and 46.8%, respectively) income neighbourhoods. Children with intellectual disability had a lower percent of any ASD test (81.7%) and 'gold standard' tests (52.6%) compared to children without intellectual disability (84.0% and 57.6%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Autism spectrum disorder testing practices vary widely by site and differ by race and presence of co-occurring intellectual disability, suggesting opportunities to standardise and/or improve autism spectrum disorder identification practices.

Stress reduction for paid home care aides: A feasibility study of mindfulness meditation and Tai Chi interventions.

Evidence of effective self-care strategies to support Home Care Aides' (HCAs) mental health is limited. This study compares the feasibility of implementing one of two non-clinical, evidence-based stress-reduction treatments: mindful awareness practices (MAPs) meditation versus Korean-style Tai Chi. Program effectiveness was assessed on a range of self-reported health and mental health quantitative outcomes at three time-points. Both groups showed statistically significant improvements in depression, insomnia, and negative affect during the six weeks (all p. <0.05), but only the MAPs group demonstrated a sustained improvement in negative affect at three-month follow-up (p. <0.05). At three-month follow-up, 55% of Tai Chi participants continued practicing learned techniques, compared to 75% of MAPs participants. MAPs were found to be more practical and amenable to integration in daily life compared to Tai Chi. Showing positive results on both feasibility and effectiveness assessment, MAPs were chosen over Tai Chi to be scaled as a benefit to HCAs.

Selective Implantation of Diamines for Cooperative Catalysis in Isoreticular Heterometallic Titanium-Organic Frameworks.

We introduce the first example of isoreticular titanium-organic frameworks, MUV-10 and MUV-12, to show how the different affinity of hard Ti(IV) and soft Ca(II) metal sites can be used to direct selective grafting of amines. This enables the combination of Lewis acid titanium centers and available -NH2 sites in two sizeable pores for cooperative cycloaddition of CO2 to epoxides at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The selective grafting of molecules to heterometallic clusters adds up to the pool of methodologies available for controlling the positioning and distribution of chemical functions in precise positions of the framework required for definitive control of pore chemistry.

Diffusion Control in Single-Site Zinc Reticular Amination Catalysts.

Zn-containing metal-organic frameworks have been used for the first time as heterogeneous catalysts in the amination of C-Cl bonds. The use of extended bis(pyrazolate) linkers can generate highly porous architectures, which favor the diffusion of amines to the confined spaces with respect to other imidazolate frameworks with narrower pore windows. The N4Zn nodes of the Zn-reticular framework show comparable activity to state-of-the-art homogeneous Zn amination catalysts, avoiding the use of basic conditions, precious metals, or other additives. This is combined with long-term activity and stability upon several reaction cycles, without contamination of the reaction product.

Magnesium Exchanged Zirconium Metal-Organic Frameworks with Improved Detoxification Properties of Nerve Agents.

UiO-66, MOF-808 and NU-1000 metal-organic frameworks exhibit a differentiated reactivity toward [Mg(OMe)2(MeOH)2]4 related to their pore accessibility. Microporous UiO-66 remains unchanged while mesoporous MOF-808 and hierarchical micro/mesoporous NU-1000 materials yield doped systems containing exposed MgZr5O2(OH)6 clusters in the mesoporous cavities. This modification is responsible for a remarkable enhancement of the catalytic activity toward the hydrolytic degradation of P-F and P-S bonds of toxic nerve agents, at room temperature, in unbuffered aqueous solutions.

Textile/metal-organic-framework composites as self-detoxifying filters for chemical-warfare agents.

The current technology of air-filtration materials for protection against highly toxic chemicals, that is, chemical-warfare agents, is mainly based on the broad and effective adsorptive properties of hydrophobic activated carbons. However, adsorption does not prevent these materials from behaving as secondary emitters once they are contaminated. Thus, the development of efficient self-cleaning filters is of high interest. Herein, we report how we can take advantage of the improved phosphotriesterase catalytic activity of lithium alkoxide doped zirconium(IV) metal-organic framework (MOF) materials to develop advanced self-detoxifying adsorbents of chemical-warfare agents containing hydrolysable P-F, P-O, and C-Cl bonds. Moreover, we also show that it is possible to integrate these materials onto textiles, thereby combining air-permeation properties of the textiles with the self-detoxifying properties of the MOF material.

Health Conditions, Education Services, and Transition Planning for Adolescents With Autism.

OBJECTIVE: Our objectives with this study were to describe the frequency of selected cooccurring health conditions and individualized education program (IEP) services and post-high school transition planning for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and identify disparities by sex, intellectual ability, race or ethnicity, and geographic area. METHODS: The study sample included 1787 adolescents born in 2004 who were identified as having autism through a health and education record review through age 16 years in 2020. These adolescents were part of a longitudinal population-based surveillance birth cohort from the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network from 2004 to 2020 in 5 US catchment areas. RESULTS: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (47%) and anxiety (39%) were the most common cooccurring health conditions. Anxiety was less commonly identified for those with intellectual disability than those without. It was also less commonly identified among Black adolescents compared with White or Hispanic adolescents. There was wide variation across Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network sites in the provision of school-based IEP services. Students with intellectual disability were less likely to receive school-based mental health services and more likely to have a goal for postsecondary independent living skills compared with those without intellectual disability. A total of 37% of students did not participate in standardized testing. CONCLUSIONS: We identified disparities in the identification of cooccurring conditions and school-based IEP services, practices, and transition planning. Working with pediatric health and education providers, families, and adolescents with autism will be important to identify contributing factors and to focus efforts to reduce disparities in the supports and services adolescents with autism have access to and receive.

Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Diagnostic Patterns, Co-occurring Conditions, and Transition Planning.

PURPOSE: The objectives of this study were to describe child characteristics associated with later autism spectrum disorder (ASD) identification and the health status and educational transition plans of adolescents with ASD. METHODS: Longitudinal population-based surveillance cohort from the Autism Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network during 2002-2018 in five catchment areas in the United States. Participants included 3,148 children born in 2002 whose records were first reviewed for ASD surveillance in 2010. RESULTS: Of the 1,846 children identified in the community as an ASD case, 11.6% were first identified after age 8 years. Children who were more likely to have ASD identified at older ages were Hispanic; were born with low birth weight; were verbal; had high intelligence quotient or adaptive scores; or had certain co-occurring neuropsychological conditions by age 8 years. By age 16 years, neuropsychological conditions were common with more than half of the adolescents with ASD having a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or anxiety. Intellectual disability (ID) status was unchanged for the majority (>80%) of children from ages 8-16 years. A transition plan was completed for over 94% of adolescents, but disparities were observed in planning by ID status. DISCUSSION: A high percentage of adolescents with ASD have co-occurring neuropsychological conditions, markedly higher than at age 8. While most adolescents had transition planning, this occurred less often for those with ID. Ensuring access to services for all people with ASD during adolescence and transition to adulthood may help to promote overall health and quality of life.

Individualized Education Programs and Transition Planning for Adolescents With Autism.

OBJECTIVES: The study objectives were to examine the contents of individualized education programs (IEPs) of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including postsecondary transition goals, services, and changes in special education classification over time. METHODS: This study involved a longitudinal population-based surveillance cohort from the Autism Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network from 2002 to 2018 in 3 catchment areas in the United States. The sample included 322 adolescents who were born in 2002, identified with ASD, and had an IEP available for review at ages 15-16 years. RESULTS: We found that 297 (92%) adolescents with ASD had an IEP including a transition plan. Those without intellectual disability (ID) were more likely to have postsecondary education and employment goals and have those goals be to pursue higher education or competitive employment compared with those with ID. Forty-one percent of adolescents with ASD had a postsecondary living arrangement goal. Although 28% of adolescents with ASD received school-based mental health services, none of these adolescents were Black; additionally, 15% of those with ID received mental health services compared with 34% without ID. The percentage of adolescents with ASD served under an autism classification increased from 44% at age 8 years to 62% by age 16. CONCLUSIONS: We identified gaps and disparities in school-based postsecondary transition planning. Working with education partners, families, and adolescents will be important to identify what challenges contribute to these findings and what supports are needed to improve the equity and quality of the transition planning process for adolescents with ASD so they are prepared for adulthood.

Statewide county-level autism spectrum disorder prevalence estimates-seven U.S. states, 2018.

PURPOSE: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) prevalence information is necessary for identifying community needs such as addressing disparities in identification and services. METHODS: Seven Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network sites participated in a pilot project to link statewide health and education data to generate statewide and county-level prevalence estimates for a broader age range for their states for the first time. RESULTS: Statewide prevalence of ASD for ages 3-21 years in 2018 ranged from 1.5% in Tennessee and Wisconsin to 2.3% in Arizona. The median county-level prevalence of ASD was 1.4% of residents ages 3-21 years. More boys than girls had ASD at all sites, and prevalence was lower among non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native residents compared to non-Hispanic White residents at most sites. ASD prevalence estimates for children aged 8 years were similar to 2018 ADDM Network estimates that used record review to provide more in-depth information, but showed greater variation for children aged 4 years. CONCLUSIONS: Linkage of statewide data sets provides less detailed but actionable local information when more resource-intensive methods are not possible.

Tuning Ni-Pyrazolate Frameworks by Post-Synthetic Fe-Incorporation for Oxidase-Mimicking H2 O2 Activation.

The introduction of iron ionic sites by metal exchange of defective homometallic nickel pyrazolate frameworks generates non-precious, Earth-abundant, first-row heterometallic Fe/Ni-pyrazolate frameworks. The Fe incorporation at the Ni nodes of the framework allows to control the hydrogen peroxide activation, minimizing its decomposition and O2 liberation, occurring at the homometallic Ni nodes. The generation of Fe-OH reactive oxygen species at the heterometallic Fe/Ni nodes is demonstrated by the higher activity in the proof-of-concept oxidation of 1-phenylethanol to acetophenone in an aqueous medium.

Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years - Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2020.

Problem/Condition: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Period Covered: 2020. Description of System: The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network is an active surveillance program that provides estimates of the prevalence of ASD among children aged 8 years. In 2020, there were 11 ADDM Network sites across the United States (Arizona, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, Tennessee, Utah, and Wisconsin). To ascertain ASD among children aged 8 years, ADDM Network staff review and abstract developmental evaluations and records from community medical and educational service providers. A child met the case definition if their record documented 1) an ASD diagnostic statement in an evaluation, 2) a classification of ASD in special education, or 3) an ASD International Classification of Diseases (ICD) code. Results: For 2020, across all 11 ADDM sites, ASD prevalence per 1,000 children aged 8 years ranged from 23.1 in Maryland to 44.9 in California. The overall ASD prevalence was 27.6 per 1,000 (one in 36) children aged 8 years and was 3.8 times as prevalent among boys as among girls (43.0 versus 11.4). Overall, ASD prevalence was lower among non-Hispanic White children (24.3) and children of two or more races (22.9) than among non-Hispanic Black or African American (Black), Hispanic, and non-Hispanic Asian or Pacific Islander (A/PI) children (29.3, 31.6, and 33.4 respectively). ASD prevalence among non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native (AI/AN) children (26.5) was similar to that of other racial and ethnic groups. ASD prevalence was associated with lower household income at three sites, with no association at the other sites.Across sites, the ASD prevalence per 1,000 children aged 8 years based exclusively on documented ASD diagnostic statements was 20.6 (range = 17.1 in Wisconsin to 35.4 in California). Of the 6,245 children who met the ASD case definition, 74.7% had a documented diagnostic statement of ASD, 65.2% had a documented ASD special education classification, 71.6% had a documented ASD ICD code, and 37.4% had all three types of ASD indicators. The median age of earliest known ASD diagnosis was 49 months and ranged from 36 months in California to 59 months in Minnesota.Among the 4,165 (66.7%) children with ASD with information on cognitive ability, 37.9% were classified as having an intellectual disability. Intellectual disability was present among 50.8% of Black, 41.5% of A/PI, 37.8% of two or more races, 34.9% of Hispanic, 34.8% of AI/AN, and 31.8% of White children with ASD. Overall, children with intellectual disability had earlier median ages of ASD diagnosis (43 months) than those without intellectual disability (53 months). Interpretation: For 2020, one in 36 children aged 8 years (approximately 4% of boys and 1% of girls) was estimated to have ASD. These estimates are higher than previous ADDM Network estimates during 2000-2018. For the first time among children aged 8 years, the prevalence of ASD was lower among White children than among other racial and ethnic groups, reversing the direction of racial and ethnic differences in ASD prevalence observed in the past. Black children with ASD were still more likely than White children with ASD to have a co-occurring intellectual disability. Public Health Action: The continued increase among children identified with ASD, particularly among non-White children and girls, highlights the need for enhanced infrastructure to provide equitable diagnostic, treatment, and support services for all children with ASD. Similar to previous reporting periods, findings varied considerably across network sites, indicating the need for additional research to understand the nature of such differences and potentially apply successful identification strategies across states.

Early Identification of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 4 Years - Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2020.

Problem/Condition: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Period Covered: 2020. Description of System: The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network is an active surveillance program that estimates prevalence and characteristics of ASD and monitors timing of ASD identification among children aged 4 and 8 years. In 2020, a total of 11 sites (located in Arizona, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, Tennessee, Utah, and Wisconsin) conducted surveillance of ASD among children aged 4 and 8 years and suspected ASD among children aged 4 years. Surveillance included children who lived in the surveillance area at any time during 2020. Children were classified as having ASD if they ever received 1) an ASD diagnostic statement in an evaluation, 2) a special education classification of autism (eligibility), or 3) an ASD International Classification of Diseases (ICD) code (revisions 9 or 10). Children aged 4 years were classified as having suspected ASD if they did not meet the case definition for ASD but had a documented qualified professional's statement indicating a suspicion of ASD. This report focuses on children aged 4 years in 2020 compared with children aged 8 years in 2020. Results: For 2020, ASD prevalence among children aged 4 years varied across sites, from 12.7 per 1,000 children in Utah to 46.4 in California. The overall prevalence was 21.5 and was higher among boys than girls at every site. Compared with non-Hispanic White children, ASD prevalence was 1.8 times as high among Hispanic, 1.6 times as high among non-Hispanic Black, 1.4 times as high among Asian or Pacific Islander, and 1.2 times as high among multiracial children. Among the 58.3% of children aged 4 years with ASD and information on intellectual ability, 48.5% had an IQ score of ≤70 on their most recent IQ test or an examiner's statement of intellectual disability. Among children with a documented developmental evaluation, 78.0% were evaluated by age 36 months. Children aged 4 years had a higher cumulative incidence of ASD diagnosis or eligibility by age 48 months compared with children aged 8 years at all sites; risk ratios ranged from 1.3 in New Jersey and Utah to 2.0 in Tennessee. In the 6 months before the March 2020 COVID-19 pandemic declaration by the World Health Organization, there were 1,593 more evaluations and 1.89 more ASD identifications per 1,000 children aged 4 years than children aged 8 years received 4 years earlier. After the COVID-19 pandemic declaration, this pattern reversed: in the 6 months after pandemic onset, there were 217 fewer evaluations and 0.26 fewer identifications per 1,000 children aged 4 years than children aged 8 years received 4 years earlier. Patterns of evaluation and identification varied among sites, but there was not recovery to pre-COVID-19 pandemic levels by the end of 2020 at most sites or overall. For 2020, prevalence of suspected ASD ranged from 0.5 (California) to 10.4 (Arkansas) per 1,000 children aged 4 years, with an increase from 2018 at five sites (Arizona, Arkansas, Maryland, New Jersey, and Utah). Demographic and cognitive characteristics of children aged 4 years with suspected ASD were similar to children aged 4 years with ASD. Interpretation: A wide range of prevalence of ASD by age 4 years was observed, suggesting differences in early ASD identification practices among communities. At all sites, cumulative incidence of ASD by age 48 months among children aged 4 years was higher compared with children aged 8 years in 2020, indicating improvements in early identification of ASD. Higher numbers of evaluations and rates of identification were evident among children aged 4 years until the COVID-19 pandemic onset in 2020. Sustained lower levels of ASD evaluations and identification seen at a majority of sites after the pandemic onset could indicate disruptions in typical practices in evaluations and identification for health service providers and schools through the end of 2020. Sites with more recovery could indicate successful strategies to mitigate service interruption, such as pivoting to telehealth approaches for evaluation. Public Health Action: From 2016 through February of 2020, ASD evaluation and identification among the cohort of children aged 4 years was outpacing ASD evaluation and identification 4 years earlier (from 2012 until March 2016) among the cohort of children aged 8 years in 2020 . From 2016 to March 2020, ASD evaluation and identification among the cohort of children aged 4 years was outpacing that among children aged 8 years in 2020 from 2012 until March 2016. The disruptions in evaluation that coincided with the start of the COVID-19 pandemic and the increase in prevalence of suspected ASD in 2020 could have led to delays in ASD identification and interventions. Communities could evaluate the impact of these disruptions as children in affected cohorts age and consider strategies to mitigate service disruptions caused by future public health emergencies.

An informal survey on family/caregiver wishes for individuals with autism in Arkansas.

Families/caregivers of children with ASD experience problems and disparities in healthcare and service delivery first hand. As a result, they can provide valuable input in the development of a system that best meets the needs of these children. Results from an informal, open response survey completed by participants of the 2011 Autism Speaks Walk in Little Rock most commonly identified the need for better quality educational/interventional services and the need to develop or transform community assets to be more knowledgeable and supportive of individuals with autism as major gaps in the system of care for their children.

The Arkansas Autism Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (AR ADDM) project: statewide autism surveillance in a rural state.

In 2002, the Arkansas Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (AR ADDM) project collected data on the number and characteristics of resident children aged 8 years using a retrospective record review standardized methodology. This paper provides a first-look epidemiology of ASDs among 8 year old Arkansas children using data from the 2002 study year. Overall prevalence estimates, demographic distribution and a temporal lag from concerns identified to diagnosis of ASDs among 8 year olds in Arkansas were similar to that in other sites. Dissemination of information that promotes timely resolution of developmental concerns and improving educational services will benefit children with autism in Arkansas.

Layer-by-Layer Integration of Zirconium Metal-Organic Frameworks onto Activated Carbon Spheres and Fabrics with Model Nerve Agent Detoxification Properties.

We report the controlled synthesis of thin films of prototypical zirconium metal-organic frameworks [Zr6O4(OH)4(benzene-1,4-dicarboxylate-2-X)6] (X = H, UiO-66 and X = NH2, UiO-66-NH2) over the external surface of shaped carbonized substrates (spheres and textile fabrics) using a layer-by-layer method. The resulting composite materials contain metal-organic framework (MOF) crystals homogeneously distributed over the external surface of the porous shaped bodies, which are able to capture an organophosphate nerve agent simulant (diisopropylfluorophosphate, DIFP) in competition with moisture (very fast) and hydrolyze the P-F bond (slow). This behavior confers the composite material self-cleaning properties, which are useful for blocking secondary emission problems of classical protective equipment based on activated carbon.

Prevalence of intellectual disability among eight-year-old children from selected communities in the United States, 2014.

BACKGROUND: Children with intellectual disability (ID), characterized by impairments in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, benefit from early identification and access to services. Previous U.S. estimates used administrative data or parent report with limited information for demographic subgroups. OBJECTIVE: Using empiric measures we examined ID characteristics among 8-year-old children and estimated prevalence by sex, race/ethnicity, geographic area and socioeconomic status (SES) area indicators. METHODS: We analyzed data for 8-year-old children in 9 geographic areas participating in the 2014 Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network. Children with ID were identified through record review of IQ test data. Census and American Community Survey data were used to estimate the denominator. RESULTS: Overall, 11.8 per 1,000 (1.2%) had ID (IQ ≤ 70), of whom 39% (n = 998) also had autism spectrum disorder. Among children with ID, 1,823 had adaptive behavior test scores for which 64% were characterized as impaired. ID prevalence per 1,000 was 15.8 (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 15.0-16.5) among males and 7.7 (95% CI, 7.2-8.2) among females. ID prevalence was 17.7 (95% CI, 16.6-18.9) among children who were non-Hispanic black; 12.0 (95% CI, 11.1-13.0), among Hispanic; 8.6 (95% CI, 7.1-10.4), among non-Hispanic Asian; and 8.0 (95% CI, 7.5-8.6), among non-Hispanic white. Prevalence varied across geographic areas and was inversely associated with SES. CONCLUSIONS: ID prevalence varied substantively among racial, ethnic, geographic, and SES groups. Results can inform strategies to enhance identification and improve access to services particularly for children who are minorities or living in areas with lower SES.

Early Identification of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 4 Years - Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2018.

PROBLEM/CONDITION: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). PERIOD COVERED: 2018. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM: The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network is an active surveillance program that estimates ASD prevalence and monitors timing of ASD identification among children aged 4 and 8 years. This report focuses on children aged 4 years in 2018, who were born in 2014 and had a parent or guardian who lived in the surveillance area in one of 11 sites (Arizona, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, Tennessee, Utah, and Wisconsin) at any time during 2018. Children were classified as having ASD if they ever received 1) an ASD diagnostic statement (diagnosis) in an evaluation, 2) a special education classification of ASD (eligibility), or 3) an ASD International Classification of Diseases (ICD) code. Suspected ASD also was tracked among children aged 4 years. Children who did not meet the case definition for ASD were classified as having suspected ASD if their records contained a qualified professional's statement indicating a suspicion of ASD. RESULTS: For 2018, the overall ASD prevalence was 17.0 per 1,000 (one in 59) children aged 4 years. Prevalence varied from 9.1 per 1,000 in Utah to 41.6 per 1,000 in California. At every site, prevalence was higher among boys than girls, with an overall male-to-female prevalence ratio of 3.4. Prevalence of ASD among children aged 4 years was lower among non-Hispanic White (White) children (12.9 per 1,000) than among non-Hispanic Black (Black) children (16.6 per 1,000), Hispanic children (21.1 per 1,000), and Asian/Pacific Islander (A/PI) children (22.7 per 1,000). Among children aged 4 years with ASD and information on intellectual ability, 52% met the surveillance case definition of co-occurring intellectual disability (intelligence quotient ≤70 or an examiner's statement of intellectual disability documented in an evaluation). Of children aged 4 years with ASD, 72% had a first evaluation at age ≤36 months. Stratified by census-tract-level median household income (MHI) tertile, a lower percentage of children with ASD and intellectual disability was evaluated by age 36 months in the low MHI tertile (72%) than in the high MHI tertile (84%). Cumulative incidence of ASD diagnosis or eligibility received by age 48 months was 1.5 times as high among children aged 4 years (13.6 per 1,000 children born in 2014) as among those aged 8 years (8.9 per 1,000 children born in 2010). Across MHI tertiles, higher cumulative incidence of ASD diagnosis or eligibility received by age 48 months was associated with lower MHI. Suspected ASD prevalence was 2.6 per 1,000 children aged 4 years, meaning for every six children with ASD, one child had suspected ASD. The combined prevalence of ASD and suspected ASD (19.7 per 1,000 children aged 4 years) was lower than ASD prevalence among children aged 8 years (23.0 per 1,000 children aged 8 years). INTERPRETATION: Groups with historically lower prevalence of ASD (non-White and lower MHI) had higher prevalence and cumulative incidence of ASD among children aged 4 years in 2018, suggesting progress in identification among these groups. However, a lower percentage of children with ASD and intellectual disability in the low MHI tertile were evaluated by age 36 months than in the high MHI group, indicating disparity in timely evaluation. Children aged 4 years had a higher cumulative incidence of diagnosis or eligibility by age 48 months compared with children aged 8 years, indicating improvement in early identification of ASD. The overall prevalence for children aged 4 years was less than children aged 8 years, even when prevalence of children suspected of having ASD by age 4 years is included. This finding suggests that many children identified after age 4 years do not have suspected ASD documented by age 48 months. PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: Children born in 2014 were more likely to be identified with ASD by age 48 months than children born in 2010, indicating increased early identification. However, ASD identification among children aged 4 years varied by site, suggesting opportunities to examine developmental screening and diagnostic practices that promote earlier identification. Children aged 4 years also were more likely to have co-occurring intellectual disability than children aged 8 years, suggesting that improvement in the early identification and evaluation of developmental concerns outside of cognitive impairments is still needed. Improving early identification of ASD could lead to earlier receipt of evidence-based interventions and potentially improve developmental outcomes.

Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years - Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2018.

PROBLEM/CONDITION: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). PERIOD COVERED: 2018. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM: The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network conducts active surveillance of ASD. This report focuses on the prevalence and characteristics of ASD among children aged 8 years in 2018 whose parents or guardians lived in 11 ADDM Network sites in the United States (Arizona, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, Tennessee, Utah, and Wisconsin). To ascertain ASD among children aged 8 years, ADDM Network staff review and abstract developmental evaluations and records from community medical and educational service providers. In 2018, children met the case definition if their records documented 1) an ASD diagnostic statement in an evaluation (diagnosis), 2) a special education classification of ASD (eligibility), or 3) an ASD International Classification of Diseases (ICD) code. RESULTS: For 2018, across all 11 ADDM sites, ASD prevalence per 1,000 children aged 8 years ranged from 16.5 in Missouri to 38.9 in California. The overall ASD prevalence was 23.0 per 1,000 (one in 44) children aged 8 years, and ASD was 4.2 times as prevalent among boys as among girls. Overall ASD prevalence was similar across racial and ethnic groups, except American Indian/Alaska Native children had higher ASD prevalence than non-Hispanic White (White) children (29.0 versus 21.2 per 1,000 children aged 8 years). At multiple sites, Hispanic children had lower ASD prevalence than White children (Arizona, Arkansas, Georgia, and Utah), and non-Hispanic Black (Black) children (Georgia and Minnesota). The associations between ASD prevalence and neighborhood-level median household income varied by site. Among the 5,058 children who met the ASD case definition, 75.8% had a diagnostic statement of ASD in an evaluation, 18.8% had an ASD special education classification or eligibility and no ASD diagnostic statement, and 5.4% had an ASD ICD code only. ASD prevalence per 1,000 children aged 8 years that was based exclusively on documented ASD diagnostic statements was 17.4 overall (range: 11.2 in Maryland to 29.9 in California). The median age of earliest known ASD diagnosis ranged from 36 months in California to 63 months in Minnesota. Among the 3,007 children with ASD and data on cognitive ability, 35.2% were classified as having an intelligence quotient (IQ) score ≤70. The percentages of children with ASD with IQ scores ≤70 were 49.8%, 33.1%, and 29.7% among Black, Hispanic, and White children, respectively. Overall, children with ASD and IQ scores ≤70 had earlier median ages of ASD diagnosis than children with ASD and IQ scores >70 (44 versus 53 months). INTERPRETATION: In 2018, one in 44 children aged 8 years was estimated to have ASD, and prevalence and median age of identification varied widely across sites. Whereas overall ASD prevalence was similar by race and ethnicity, at certain sites Hispanic children were less likely to be identified as having ASD than White or Black children. The higher proportion of Black children compared with White and Hispanic children classified as having intellectual disability was consistent with previous findings. PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: The variability in ASD prevalence and community ASD identification practices among children with different racial, ethnic, and geographical characteristics highlights the importance of research into the causes of that variability and strategies to provide equitable access to developmental evaluations and services. These findings also underscore the need for enhanced infrastructure for diagnostic, treatment, and support services to meet the needs of all children.

Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years - Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2016.

PROBLEM/CONDITION: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). PERIOD COVERED: 2016. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM: The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network is an active surveillance program that provides estimates of the prevalence of ASD among children aged 8 years whose parents or guardians live in 11 ADDM Network sites in the United States (Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Georgia, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Wisconsin). Surveillance is conducted in two phases. The first phase involves review and abstraction of comprehensive evaluations that were completed by medical and educational service providers in the community. In the second phase, experienced clinicians who systematically review all abstracted information determine ASD case status. The case definition is based on ASD criteria described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. RESULTS: For 2016, across all 11 sites, ASD prevalence was 18.5 per 1,000 (one in 54) children aged 8 years, and ASD was 4.3 times as prevalent among boys as among girls. ASD prevalence varied by site, ranging from 13.1 (Colorado) to 31.4 (New Jersey). Prevalence estimates were approximately identical for non-Hispanic white (white), non-Hispanic black (black), and Asian/Pacific Islander children (18.5, 18.3, and 17.9, respectively) but lower for Hispanic children (15.4). Among children with ASD for whom data on intellectual or cognitive functioning were available, 33% were classified as having intellectual disability (intelligence quotient [IQ] ≤70); this percentage was higher among girls than boys (39% versus 32%) and among black and Hispanic than white children (47%, 36%, and 27%, respectively) [corrected]. Black children with ASD were less likely to have a first evaluation by age 36 months than were white children with ASD (40% versus 45%). The overall median age at earliest known ASD diagnosis (51 months) was similar by sex and racial and ethnic groups; however, black children with IQ ≤70 had a later median age at ASD diagnosis than white children with IQ ≤70 (48 months versus 42 months). INTERPRETATION: The prevalence of ASD varied considerably across sites and was higher than previous estimates since 2014. Although no overall difference in ASD prevalence between black and white children aged 8 years was observed, the disparities for black children persisted in early evaluation and diagnosis of ASD. Hispanic children also continue to be identified as having ASD less frequently than white or black children. PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: These findings highlight the variability in the evaluation and detection of ASD across communities and between sociodemographic groups. Continued efforts are needed for early and equitable identification of ASD and timely enrollment in services.