Polymorphisms in transcription factor binding sites and enhancer regions and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma risk.

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are a powerful tool for detecting variants associated with complex traits and can help risk stratification and prevention strategies against pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). However, the strict significance threshold commonly used makes it likely that many true risk loci are missed. Functional annotation of GWAS polymorphisms is a proven strategy to identify additional risk loci. We aimed to investigate single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in regulatory regions [transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs) and enhancers] that could change the expression profile of multiple genes they act upon and thereby modify PDAC risk. We analyzed a total of 12,636 PDAC cases and 43,443 controls from PanScan/PanC4 and the East Asian GWAS (discovery populations), and the PANDoRA consortium (replication population). We identified four associations that reached study-wide statistical significance in the overall meta-analysis: rs2472632(A) (enhancer variant, OR 1.10, 95%CI 1.06,1.13, p = 5.5 × 10-8), rs17358295(G) (enhancer variant, OR 1.16, 95%CI 1.10,1.22, p = 6.1 × 10-7), rs2232079(T) (TFBS variant, OR 0.88, 95%CI 0.83,0.93, p = 6.4 × 10-6) and rs10025845(A) (TFBS variant, OR 1.88, 95%CI 1.50,1.12, p = 1.32 × 10-5). The SNP with the most significant association, rs2472632, is located in an enhancer predicted to target the coiled-coil domain containing 34 oncogene. Our results provide new insights into genetic risk factors for PDAC by a focused analysis of polymorphisms in regulatory regions and demonstrating the usefulness of functional prioritization to identify loci associated with PDAC risk.

Potential association between PSCA rs2976395 functional variant and pancreatic cancer risk.

Correlated regions of systemic interindividual variation (CoRSIV) represent a small proportion of the human genome showing DNA methylation patterns that are the same in all human tissues, are different among individuals, and are partially regulated by genetic variants in cis. In this study we aimed at investigating single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within CoRSIVs and their involvement with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) risk. We analyzed 29,099 CoRSIV-SNPs and 133,615 CoRSIV-mQTLs in 14,394 cases and 247,022 controls of European and Asian descent. We observed that the A allele of the rs2976395 SNP was associated with increased PDAC risk in Europeans (p = 2.81 × 10-5). This SNP lies in the prostate stem cell antigen gene and is in perfect linkage disequilibrium with a variant (rs2294008) that has been reported to be associated with risk of many other cancer types. The A allele is associated with the DNA methylation level of the gene according to the PanCan-meQTL database and with overexpression according to QTLbase. The expression of the gene has been observed to be deregulated in many tumors of the gastrointestinal tract including pancreatic cancer; however, functional studies are needed to elucidate the function relevance of the association.

A scan of all coding region variants of the human genome, identifies 13q12.2-rs9579139 and 15q24.1-rs2277598 as novel risk loci for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.

Coding sequence variants comprise a small fraction of the germline genetic variability of the human genome. However, they often cause deleterious change in protein function and are therefore associated with pathogenic phenotypes. To identify novel pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) risk loci, we carried out a complete scan of all common missense and synonymous SNPs and analysed them in a case-control study comprising four different populations, for a total of 14 538 PDAC cases and 190 657 controls. We observed a statistically significant association between 13q12.2-rs9581957-T and PDAC risk (P = 2.46 × 10-9), that is in linkage disequilibrium (LD) with a deleterious missense variant (rs9579139) of the URAD gene. Recent findings suggest that this gene is active in peroxisomes. Considering that peroxisomes have a key role as molecular scavengers, especially in eliminating reactive oxygen species, a malfunctioning URAD protein might expose the cell to a higher load of potentially DNA damaging molecules and therefore increase PDAC risk. The association was observed in individuals of European and Asian ethnicity. We also observed the association of the missense variant 15q24.1-rs2277598-T, that belongs to BBS4 gene, with increased PDAC risk (P = 1.53 × 10-6). rs2277598 is associated with body mass index and is in LD with diabetes susceptibility loci. In conclusion, we identified two missense variants associated with the risk of developing PDAC independently from the ethnicity highlighting the importance of conducting reanalysis of genome-wide association studies (GWASs) in light of functional data.

Genetically Determined Telomere Length Is Associated with Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms Onset.

INTRODUCTION: Telomere length (TL) is a potential indicator of cancer predisposition; however, the multitude of techniques used to measure it causes the results to be heterogeneous and, in some cases, controversial. In the last years, several studies adopted a strategy based on TL-associated genetic variants to generate a polygenic score, often referred as teloscore, used in lieu of direct TL measurement. For pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (PanNEN), this strategy has not been attempted yet. METHODS: A teloscore was generated using 11 SNPs (NAF1-rs7675998, ZNF676-rs409627, TERC-rs10936599, CTC1-rs3027234, PXK-rs6772228, DHX35-rs6028466, OBFC1-rs9420907, ZNF208-rs8105767, ACYP2-rs11125529, TERT-rs2736100, and ZBTB46-rs755017), and 291 PanNEN cases and 1,686 controls collected by the PANcreatic Disease ReseArch (PANDoRA) consortium were genotyped to analyse the association of the teloscore and its individual SNPs with the risk of developing PanNEN. RESULTS: An association between genetically determined long telomeres and the risk of developing PanNEN (OR = 1.99, CI: 1.33-2.98, p = 0.0008) for highest versus median (third) quintile was observed. In addition, two novel SNPs associated with PanNEN risk were identified: ZNF676-rs409627 (ORC/C_vs_G/G = 2.27, CI: 1.58-3.27, p = 8.80 × 10-6) and TERT-rs2736100 (ORC/A_vs_C/C = 2.03, CI: 1.42-2.91, p = 1.06 × 10-4). CONCLUSION: In conclusion, this study provides for the first time a clear indication of the association between long genetically determined telomeres and increased risk of developing PanNEN.

The Involvement of the Endogenous Opioid System in the Gastrointestinal Aging in Mice and Humans.

Nearly 20% of elderly patients suffer from constipation, but the age-related changes in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract remain insufficiently elucidated. In this study, the alterations within the endogenous opioid system (EOS) as a potential cause of constipation in the elderly were evaluated. The GI functions were assessed in vitro and in vivo and compared between 6-, 12- and 18-month old mice. Moreover, the effect of opioid receptor (MOP, DOP, KOP) agonists on the mouse GI tract functions and the EOS components expression in mouse tissues and colonic biopsies from patients with functional constipation were determined. In the oldest mice, the GI peristalsis was significantly impaired as compared to the younger groups. The tissue response to MOP and DOP, but not KOP, agonists weakened with age in vitro; for DOP, it was confirmed in vivo. In the mouse upper GI tract, Oprm1, Oprd1, Oprk1 expression decreased with age; in the colon, Oprm1 expression increased. There were no differences in the expression of these genes in the colonic biopsies from patients >50 years old as compared to the younger group. In conclusion, the age-related impairment of the GI peristalsis may result from reduced MOP and DOP response to the activation with opioid agonists or the alterations in the EOS expression.

Microscopic Colitis: An Underestimated Disease of Growing Importance.

The aim of this paper is to raise awareness of MC as a clinically significant condition and to highlight its under-recognition, risk factors, diagnosis, management, and complications. This paper underlines the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges associated with the often nonspecific symptoms of MC. In order to create this article, we reviewed available articles found in the PubMed database and searched for articles using the Google Scholar platform. Microscopic colitis (MC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease, classified into three types: lymphocytic, collagenous, and unspecified. The average age of onset of MC is around 62-65 years and the disease is more common in women than men (nine times more common). The main symptom of MC is watery diarrhoea without blood, other symptoms include defecatory urgency, faecal incontinence, abdominal pain, nocturnal bowel movements, and weight loss. Once considered a rare disease, MC is now being diagnosed with increasing frequency, but diagnosis remains difficult. To date, a number of causative factors for MC have been identified, including smoking, alcohol consumption, medications (including NSAIDs, PPIs, SSRIs, and ICPIs), genetic factors, autoimmune diseases, bile acid malabsorption, obesity, appendicitis, and intestinal dysbiosis. It may be difficult to recognize and should be differentiated from inflammatory bowel diseases (Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis), irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), coeliac disease, infectious bowel disease, and others. Diagnosis involves biopsy at colonoscopy and histopathological evaluation of the samples. Treatment consists of budesonide oral (the gold standard) or enema. Alternatives include bile acid sequestrants (cholestyramine, colesevelam, and colestipol), biologics (infliximab, adalimumab, and vedolizumab), thiopurines, methotrexate, and rarely, surgery.

Diagnostics and Management of Pancreatic Cystic Lesions-New Techniques and Guidelines.

Pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) are increasingly diagnosed owing to the wide use of cross-sectional imaging techniques. Accurate identification of PCL categories is critical for determining the indications for surgical intervention or surveillance. The classification and management of PCLs rely on a comprehensive and interdisciplinary evaluation, integrating clinical data, imaging findings, and cyst fluid markers. EUS (endoscopic ultrasound) has become the widely used diagnostic tool for the differentiation of pancreatic cystic lesions, offering detailed evaluation of even small pancreatic lesions with high sensitivity and specificity. Additionally, endoscopic ultrasound-fine-needle aspiration enhances diagnostic capabilities through cytological analysis and the assessment of fluid viscosity, tumor glycoprotein concentration, amylase levels, and molecular scrutiny. These detailed insights play a pivotal role in improving the clinical prognosis and management of pancreatic neoplasms. This review will focus mainly on the latest recommendations for the differentiation, management, and treatment of pancreatic cystic lesions, highlighting their clinical significance.

An Evaluation of the Usefulness of Selected Screening Methods in Assessing the Risk of Malnutrition in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of malnutrition risk in patients with IBD using different scales to evaluate their usefulness as first-step screening tools for the diagnosis of malnutrition using the GLIM criteria in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. This study included 82 patients with IBD. The Mini Nutritional Assessment, Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool, Saskatchewan IBD-Nutrition Risk and Malnutrition Screening Tool were used to assess malnutrition risk in the study group. In order to diagnose malnutrition, the GLIM criteria were used. According to the GLIM recommendations, malnutrition was diagnosed in 60 patients with IBD (73.17%). Depending on the applied screening tools, the prevalence of moderate and/or high-risk malnutrition in patients with IBD ranged from 20.25% to 43.59%. The highest level of accuracy (ACC) was noted for the MST and MUST questionnaires (92.50% and 90%, respectively), followed by the SASKIBD-NR test (89.97%) and the MNA questionnaire (83.33%). The results of our study indicate a high prevalence of malnutrition in patients with IBD. Thus, there is a need to conduct routine assessments of malnutrition risk using validated scales. The MUST scale seems promising in the assessment of malnutrition risk in patients with IBD as a first step in the assessment of malnutrition using the GLIM criteria.

Myostatin and Activin A as Biomarkers of Sarcopenia in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients.

The prevalence of sarcopenia in inflammatory bowel disease patients has received increasing attention. The aim of this study is to assess the usefulness of determining levels of myostatin (MSTN) and activin A (Act A) as potential markers of disease activity and occurrence of sarcopenia in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis patients. The case-control study included 82 patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease. The control group consisted of 25 healthy volunteers. The serum levels of myostatin and activin A were determined by the quantitative sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Sarcopenia was diagnosed based on the EWGSOP2 criteria. The study found lower levels of myostatin and activin A in the IBD patients. There were significantly lower levels of myostatin (80.6 pg/mL vs. 186.2 pg/mL; p = 0.0364) as well as activin A (32.1 pg/mL vs. 35.2 pg/mL; p = 0.0132) in the IBD patients with sarcopenia compared to those without sarcopenia. Positive correlations were found between MSTN levels and Muscle Mass Index (rho = 0.31; p < 0.005) and hand grip strength (rho = 0.34, p < 0.05) in the IBD patients. The determination of serum levels of MSTN and Act A may be useful in the early diagnosis of sarcopenia in IBD patients.

Safety and Effectiveness of Thiopurines and Small Molecules in Elderly Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Diseases.

The management of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) requires weighing an individual patient's therapeutic benefits and therapy-related complication risks. The immunomodulators that have been commonly used so far in IBD therapy are thiopurines, including 6-mercaptopurine and azathioprine. As our understanding of the IBD pathomechanisms is widening, new therapeutic approaches are being introduced, including the Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors and Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor (S1PR) modulators' development. Non-selective JAK inhibitors are represented by tofacitinib, while selective JAK inhibitors comprise filgotinib and upadacitinib. As for the S1PR modulators, ozanimod and etrasimod are approved for UC therapy. The number of elderly patients with IBD is growing; therefore, this review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of the oral immunomodulators among the subjects aged ≥60. Possible complications limit the use of thiopurines in senior patients. Likewise, the promising effectiveness of new drugs in IBD therapy in those with additional risk factors might be confined by the risk of serious adverse events. However, the data regarding this issue are limited.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases in the Elderly: A Focus on Disease Characteristics and Biological Therapy Patterns.

Background: The incidence of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) in elderly patients is constantly increasing. It results from the combination of an aging population with compounding prevalence of IBD, as well as the growing burden of elderly-onset IBD. The clinical characteristics of elderly patients differ from young subjects with IBD due to the multimorbidity or polypharmacy, affecting the choice of adequate therapeutic options. The aim of this study was to determine the clinical aspects and biological therapy safety in elderly Polish IBD patients. Methods: We conducted a retrospective study aimed at describing the demographic, clinical, and management characteristics of IBD patients treated with a biological therapy in two referral centers within the National Drug Program in Poland. Results: Out of the entire group of 366 studied patients, 51 (13.9%) were aged over 60-32 with ulcerative colitis (UC) and 19 with Crohn's disease (CD). The disease location was predominantly ileocolonic (57.89%) in patients with CD and pancolitis for patients with UC (56.25%). Most of the elderly IBD subjects were characterized by significant comorbidities, with Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) ≥ 1 in 66.67% patients. The probability of stopping biological therapy due to adverse events had the tendency to be higher in the CCI ≥ 1 group (20.58% vs. 5.88% in CCI = 0; p = 0.087). The main reasons for the therapy discontinuation included hypersensitivity reactions and liver enzyme abnormalities. Conclusions: In conclusion, our results underline the importance of assessing the comorbidity status instead of the age prior to initiating biological therapy, analyzing additional safety risks, and close monitoring in IBD patients with multiple comorbidities.

Comparison of ustekinumab, infliximab and combination therapy in moderately to severely active ulcerative colitis - a study protocol of a randomized, multicenter, head-to-head COMBO-UC trial.

Background: Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease with a complex etiology that affects the large intestine. Characterized by chronic, bloody diarrhea, UC can lead to severe complications, including an increased risk of colorectal cancer. Despite advancements in conservative treatment, including biologics like anti-TNF agents and ustekinumab (UST), many patients do not achieve full remission. Dual targeted therapy (DTT) combining infliximab (IFX) and UST is a promising approach to improve treatment outcomes. Methods: This prospective, randomized, multicenter, head-to-head controlled trial will evaluate the efficacy and safety of UST, IFX, and combination therapy (UST + IFX) in 172 patients with moderate to severe active UC across eight gastroenterology centers in Poland. The study includes a 14-16 week remission induction period followed by a 52-week maintenance phase. Patients will be randomly assigned to one of three treatment arms: IFX monotherapy, UST monotherapy, or IFX + UST combination therapy. Primary endpoint is clinical and endoscopic remission post-induction. Secondary endpoints include clinical response, biochemical remission, histological remission, and quality of life assessments using the Inflammatory Bowel Diseases Questionnaire and 36-Item Short Form Survey. Safety will be monitored through adverse event and serious adverse event reporting. Discussion: This trial aims to determine whether combining IFX and UST can achieve higher remission rates and better long-term outcomes compared to monotherapy. The results could provide crucial insights into the optimal use of biologic agents in UC treatment, potentially establishing DTT as a standard therapy. The study's design, including extensive follow-up and robust endpoint measures, will contribute to understanding the therapeutic potential and safety profile of this combination therapy.

Modifiable Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma (PDAC) Risk Factors.

This study aims to summarize the modifiable risk factors for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) that have been known for a long time, as well as information from the most recent reports. As a cancer with a late diagnosis and poor prognosis, accurate analysis of PDAC risk factors is warranted. The incidence of this cancer continues to rise, and the five-year survival rate is the lowest with respect to other tumors. The influence of cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and chronic pancreatitis in increasing the risk of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is continually being confirmed. There are also newly emerging reports relating to the impact of lifestyle, including physical activity, the gut and oral microbiome, and hepatotropic viruses. A precise understanding of PDAC risk factors can help to identify groups of high-risk patients, and this may contribute to population awareness and education as well as earlier diagnoses with possible better treatment outcomes.

Diagnosis and Management of Barrett's Esophagus.

Barrett's esophagus is a metaplastic change of esophageal mucosa, which can be characterized by its salmon-colored lining and the presence of columnar epithelium with goblet cells. It is a well-established precancerous state of esophageal adenocarcinoma, a tumor with very poor survival rates, which incidence is rapidly growing. Despite numerous research, the debate about its diagnosis and management is still ongoing. This article aims to provide an overview of the current recommendations and new discoveries regarding the subject.

Eosinophilic Esophagitis-What Do We Know So Far?

Eosinophilic esophagitis is a Th-2 antigen-mediated disease in which there is an influx of eosinophils to all layers of the esophagus, triggering an inflammatory response. Chronic inflammatory process causes esophageal remodeling, leading to difficulties in swallowing. Food impaction, heartburn, and chest pain are other characteristic (but not pathognomonic) symptoms in adults. Although the disease has only been described since in the early 1970s, its incidence and prevalence are rapidly growing, especially in Western countries. According to the diagnostic guidelines, there should be at least 15 eosinophils visible per high-power field in biopsies obtained from different sites in the esophagus upon endoscopy with relevant esophageal symptoms. Other diseases that can cause esophageal eosinophilia should be ruled out. Eosinophilic esophagitis treatment may be challenging; however, new methods of management have recently emerged. The currently used proton pump inhibitors, topical corticosteroids, and elimination diet are combined with biological treatment. New methods for disease diagnostics and clinical course assessment are also available. This review presents current knowledge about the disease, supported by the latest research data.

Gaps and Opportunities in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer.

Pancreatic cancer is one of the leading causes off cancer-related deaths globally. In Europe, this type of cancer has the lowest survival rate of all cancers. A majority of patients have unresectable or even metastatic disease. In addition, actual therapeutic options are not curative, and surgical treatment is associated with high post-operative morbidity and a lack of uniform translation of surgical success into long-term survival. Moreover, there is no screening for the general population which is recommended, and the overall poor prognosis in pancreatic cancer is related to late clinical detection. Therefore, early diagnosis and early treatment of pancreatic cancer are particularly critical. In this review, we summarize the most significant gaps and opportunities in the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic cancer to emphasize need for improvement of early detection and the therapeutic efficacy of the available treatment for this cancer. Novel, inclusive, and intentional research is needed to produce improvements in pancreatic cancer in mm the world.

The incidence of adult type hypolactasia in patients with irritable bowel syndrome.

Introduction: The incidence of lactose intolerance in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) varies in the literature (27-72%). Primary adult lactase deficiency (adult type hypolactasia) is the most common type of primary enzyme deficiency. Complaints related to lactose intolerance may overlap with the symptoms of IBS. Aim: To assess the prevalence of primary hypolactasia in patients with IBS. Material and methods: The study included 56 patients with IBS diagnosed based on the Rome III criteria and 23 healthy people. All study participants completed a questionnaire on IBS symptoms and lactose intolerance, and they underwent a hydrogen breath test (HBT) with lactose. In the group of patients with positive results of HBT, the polymorphism C/T -13910 and G/A -22018 in the promoter of the LCT gene encoding lactase was determined. Results: Lactase deficiency was diagnosed in HBT in 34 (60.7%) patients with IBS and in the control group - in 10 (43.5%). Primary adult type hypolactasia was confirmed in 78.9% (n = 30; 79.3% in the study group; 77.8% in the control group). There were no statistically significant differences in the occurrence of LCT gene polymorphisms in particular IBS subtypes. Adult type hypolactasia was significantly more common in patients with severe than moderate and mild enzyme deficiency in HBT (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The incidence of lactase deficiency in IBS patients is not different from that found in healthy subjects. Nevertheless, irrespective of the IBS subtype, lactose intolerance may pose additional issues in patients with IBS and requires the targeted treatment.

Evaluation of Albumin, Transferrin and Transthyretin in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients as Disease Activity and Nutritional Status Biomarkers.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), is often accompanied by malnutrition that manifests itself as nutrient deficiencies and body mass loss or deficit. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the utility of albumin, transferrin and transthyretin levels in the assessment of nutritional status and IBD activity. The case-control study included 82 IBD patients. The serum concentrations of albumin, transferrin and transthyretine were determined by a quantitative sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Significantly lower median concentrations of albumin were found in the IBD patients vs. controls and in CD patients compared to the UC patients. Significantly higher median transthyretin concentrations were found in the IBD patients compared to the healthy subjects. There were no significant differences in median transferrin concentrations between the IBD patients and the healthy subjects. Significantly higher albumin levels were found in IBD patients in remission compared to patients with moderate and severe exacerbation of IBD symptoms. There were no significant differences in the median transferrin or transthyretin levels in patients with IBD depending on disease activity. No differences were identified in the median transferrin or transthyretin levels in the IBD patients according to nutritional status. The median albumin concentrations in the IBD subjects were significantly higher in patients with normal body fat, normal BMI and normal waist circumferences compared to those with an abnormal nutritional status. The albumin levels reflect both nutritional status and disease activity and therefore cannot be considered a prognostic marker of malnutrition in IBD. As regards the utility of transferrin and transthyretin as markers of activity and nutritional status in IBD patients, further studies are required.

The Latest Advancements in Diagnostic Role of Endosonography of Pancreatic Lesions.

Endosonography, a minimally invasive imaging technique, has revolutionized the diagnosis and management of pancreatic diseases. This comprehensive review highlights the latest advancements in endosonography of the pancreas, focusing on key technological developments, procedural techniques, clinical applications and additional techniques, which include real-time elastography endoscopic ultrasound, contrast-enhanced-EUS, EUS-guided fine-needle aspiration or EUS-guided fine-needle biopsy. EUS is well established for T-staging and N-staging of pancreaticobiliary malignancies, for pancreatic cyst discovery, for identifying subepithelial lesions (SEL), for differentiation of benign pancreaticobiliary disorders or for acquisition of tissue by EUS-guided fine-needle aspiration or EUS-guided fine-needle biopsy. This review briefly describes principles and application of EUS and its related techniques.

Role of Serum Interleukin-6, Interleukin-1ß and Interleukin-10 in Assessment of Disease Activity and Nutritional Status in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are characterised by multifactorial and chronic inflammation. Much attention has been paid to immune dysfunction in inflammatory bowel diseases. The aim of this study was to assess the usefulness of serum IL-6, IL-1ß and IL-10 in determining the activity and nutritional status in IBD patients. The case-control study was carried out on 82 patients with IBD; the control group consisted of 25 clinically healthy subjects. The serum concentrations of IL-6, IL-1 ß and IL-10 were determined by the quantitative sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. There were no significant differences in IL-6 and IL-1ß levels in UC and CD patients according to disease activity as assessed by the Montreal classification, Partial Mayo Score and CDAI. Significantly higher IL-6 levels were found in patients with low body fat in comparison to patients with normal body fat. Furthermore, significantly higher mean IL-6 levels were observed in patients with excess body fat in comparison to patients with normal body fat, and also in comparison to patients with deficient body fat. IL-6 and IL-1ß may provide extra information regarding the nutritional status of IBD patients. IL-10 can be considered a non-invasive biomarker of IBD activity.