Alzheimer's disease: presenilin 2-sparing γ-secretase inhibition is a tolerable Aß peptide-lowering strategy.

γ-Secretase inhibition represents a major therapeutic strategy for lowering amyloid ß (Aß) peptide production in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Progress toward clinical use of γ-secretase inhibitors has, however, been hampered due to mechanism-based adverse events, primarily related to impairment of Notch signaling. The γ-secretase inhibitor MRK-560 represents an exception as it is largely tolerable in vivo despite displaying only a small selectivity between Aß production and Notch signaling in vitro. In exploring the molecular basis for the observed tolerability, we show that MRK-560 displays a strong preference for the presenilin 1 (PS1) over PS2 subclass of γ-secretases and is tolerable in wild-type mice but causes dose-dependent Notch-related side effect in PS2-deficient mice at drug exposure levels resulting in a substantial decrease in brain Aß levels. This demonstrates that PS2 plays an important role in mediating essential Notch signaling in several peripheral organs during pharmacological inhibition of PS1 and provide preclinical in vivo proof of concept for PS2-sparing inhibition as a novel, tolerable and efficacious γ-secretase targeting strategy for AD.

Differential expression of the chemokine receptors CX3CR1 and CCR1 by microglia and macrophages in myelin-oligodendrocyte-glycoprotein-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Chemokines are important for the recruitment of immune cells into sites of inflammation. To better understand their functional roles during inflammation we have here studied the in vivo expression of receptors for the chemokines CCL3/CCL5/CCL7 (MIP-1alpha/RANTES/MCP-3) and CX3CL1 (fractalkine), CCR1 and CX3CR1, respectively, in rat myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Combined in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry demonstrated intensely upregulated CCR1 mRNA expression in early, actively demyelinating plaques, whereas CX3CR1 displayed a more generalized expression pattern. CX3CR1 mRNA expressing cells were identified as microglia on the basis of their cellular morphology and positive GSA/B4 lectin staining. In contrast, CCR1 mRNA was preferentially expressed by ED1+ GSA/B4+ macrophages. The notion of differential chemokine receptor expression in microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages was corroborated at the protein level by extraction and flow cytometric sorting of cells infiltrating the spinal cord using gating for the surface markers CD45, ED-2 and CD11b. These observations suggest a differential receptor expression between microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages and that mainly the latter cell type is responsible for active demyelination. This has great relevance for the possibility of therapeutic intervention in demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis, for example by targeting signaling events leading to monocyte recruitment.

Effector stage CC chemokine receptor-1 selective antagonism reduces multiple sclerosis-like rat disease.

We have studied the role of the chemokine receptor CCR1 during the effector stage of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in DA rats. In situ hybridization histochemistry revealed local production of the CCR1 ligands CCL3 (MIP-1 alpha) and CCL5 (RANTES), as well as large numbers of CCR1 and CCR5 expressing cells within inflammatory brain lesions. A low-molecular weight CCR1 selective antagonist potently abrogated both clinical and histopathological disease signs during a 5-day treatment period, without signs of peripheral immune compromise. Thus, we demonstrate therapeutic targeting of CCR1-dependent leukocyte recruitment to the central nervous system in a multiple sclerosis (MS)-like rat model.

In vitro characterization of AR-A000002, a novel 5-hydroxytryptamine(1B) autoreceptor antagonist.

The in vitro pharmacological properties of AR-A000002 ((R)-N-[5-methyl-8-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-naphthyl]-4-morpholinobenzamide), a novel 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)(1B) receptor antagonist, were studied. AR-A000002 bound with high affinity to guinea pig cortex and recombinant guinea pig 5-HT(1B) receptors (Ki=0.24 and 0.47 nM) and with 10-fold lower affinity to 5-HT(1D) receptors. The compound displayed weak or no affinity for 63 other binding sites tested. In [35S]GTPgammaS assays AR-A000002 showed 50% efficacy and inhibited 5-HT stimulation with 66% and a pA2 value of 8.9. In slices of guinea pig cortex, AR-A000002 enhanced the outflow of [3H]5-HT upon electrical stimulation. The compound blocked sumatriptan-evoked contraction of rabbit saphenous veins without inducing any contraction itself. Thus, in these two systems AR-A000002 behaved as a 5-HT(1B) receptor antagonist. It is concluded that AR-A000002 is a selective high affinity 5HT(1B) receptor ligand that shows partial agonist activity in recombinant systems. In native tissues AR-A000002 behaves as a 5-HT(1B) receptor antagonist.

Substituted 7-amino-5-thio-thiazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidines as potent and selective antagonists of the fractalkine receptor (CX3CR1).

We have developed two parallel series, A and B, of CX3CR1 antagonists for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. By modifying the substituents on the 7-amino-5-thio-thiazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidine core structure, we were able to achieve compounds with high selectivity for CX3CR1 over the closely related CXCR2 receptor. The structure-activity relationships showed that a leucinol moiety attached to the core-structure in the 7-position together with α-methyl branched benzyl derivatives in the 5-position displayed promising affinity, and selectivity as well as physicochemical properties, as exemplified by compounds 18a and 24h. We show the preparation of the first potent and selective orally available CX3CR1 antagonists.

Identification of novel NaV1.7 antagonists using high throughput screening platforms.

Congenital Insensitivity to Pain (CIP) is a loss of function mutation resulting in a truncated NaV1.7 protein, suggesting a pivotal role in pain signaling and rendering it an important pharmaceutical target for multiple pain conditions. The structural homology in the NaV-channel family makes it challenging to design effective analgesic compounds without inducing for example cardiotoxicity or seizure liabilities. An additional approach to structural isoform selectivity is to identify compounds with use- or state-dependent profiles, i.e. inhibition efficacy based on the gating of the ion channel. In general nerve cells in damaged or inflamed tissue are more depolarized and electrically active compared to healthy nerve cells in for instance the heart. This observation has led to the design of two types of screening protocols emulating the voltage condition of peripheral neurons or cardiac tissue. The two voltage protocols have been developed to identify both use- and state-dependent antagonists. In this paper we describe an attempt to merge the two different protocols into one to increase screening efficacy, while retaining relevant state- and use-dependent pharmacology. The new protocol is constructed of two stimulation pulses and a slow voltage ramp for simultaneous assessment of resting and state-dependent block. By comparing all protocols we show that the new protocol indeed filter compounds for state-dependence and increase the prediction power of selecting use-dependent compounds.