Further delineation of SET-related intellectual disability syndrome.

A loss-of-function mutation of SET causes nonsyndromic intellectual disability, often associated with mild facial dysmorphic features, including plagiocephaly, facial asymmetry, broad and high forehead, a wide mouth, and a prominent mandible. We report a male individual with a 2.0 Mb deletion within 9q34.11, involving SET and SPTAN1, but not STXBP1. Among the genes with a high probability of being loss-of-function intolerant in the deletion interval, only SPTAN1 and SET had haploinsufficiency score (%HI) <10, indicating a high likelihood of haploinsufficiency. Pathogenic variants in SPTAN1 are responsible for early-onset epileptic encephalopathy by exerting a dominant-negative effect. However, whether haploinsufficiency of SPTAN1 alone also causes the severe phenotype remained unknown. SET is a regulator of cell differentiation in early human development and a component of the inhibitor of histone acetyltransferases complex. Therefore, combining the previously reported patients, our patient delineated the phenotypic spectrum of SET-related nonsyndromic intellectual disability with mild facial dysmorphism.

Update of the genotype and phenotype of KMT2D and KDM6A by genetic screening of 100 patients with clinically suspected Kabuki syndrome.

Kabuki syndrome is characterized by a variable degree of intellectual disability, characteristic facial features, and complications in various organs. Many variants have been identified in two causative genes, that is, lysine methyltransferase 2D (KMT2D) and lysine demethylase 6A (KDM6A). In this study, we present the results of genetic screening of 100 patients with a suspected diagnosis of Kabuki syndrome in our center from July 2010 to June 2018. We identified 76 variants (43 novel) in KMT2D and 4 variants (3 novel) in KDM6A as pathogenic or likely pathogenic. Rare variants included a deep splicing variant (c.14000-8C>G) confirmed by RNA sequencing and an 18% mosaicism level for a KMT2D mutation. We also characterized a case with a blended phenotype consisting of Kabuki syndrome, osteogenesis imperfecta, and 16p13.11 microdeletion. We summarized the clinical phenotypes of 44 patients including a patient who developed cervical cancer of unknown origin at 16 years of age. This study presents important details of patients with Kabuki syndrome including rare clinical cases and expands our genetic understanding of this syndrome, which will help clinicians and researchers better manage and understand patients with Kabuki syndrome they may encounter.

Microdeletion of 19p13.3 in a girl with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, intellectual disability, hypotonia, and distinctive features.

Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS) is a rare autosomal dominant disease characterized by gastrointestinal polyposis and mucocutaneous pigmentation. Germline point mutations in the serine/threonine kinase 11 (STK11) have been identified in about 70% of patients with PJS. Only a few large genomic deletions have been identified. We report on a girl with PJS and multiple congenital anomalies. She had intellectual disability, umbilical hernia, bilateral inguinal hernias, scoliosis, and distinct facial appearance including prominent mandible, smooth philtrum, and malformed ears. She developed lip pigmentation at the age of 12 years but had no gastrointestinal polyps. Array comparative genomic hybridization revealed an approximately 610 kb deletion at 19p13.3, encompassing STK11. Together with previous reports, the identification of common clinical features suggests that microdeletion at 19p13.3 encompassing STK11 constitutes a distinctive phenotype.

De novo duplication of 17p13.1-p13.2 in a patient with intellectual disability and obesity.

17p13.1 Deletion encompassing TP53 has been described as a syndrome characterized by intellectual disability and dysmorphic features. Only one case with a 17p13.1 duplication encompassing TP53 has been reported in a patient with intellectual disability, seizures, obesity, and diabetes mellitus. Here, we present a patient with a 17p13.1 duplication who exhibited obesity and intellectual disability, similar to the previous report. The 9-year-old proposita was referred for the evaluation of intellectual disability and obesity. She also exhibited insulin resistance and liver dysfunction. She had wide palpebral fissures, upturned nostrils, a long mandible, short and slender fingers, and skin hyperpigmentation. Array comparative genomic hybridization (array CGH) detected a 3.2 Mb duplication of 17p13.1-p13.2 encompassing TP53, FXR2, NLGN2, and SLC2A4, which encodes the insulin-responsive glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) associated with insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in adipocytes and muscle. We suggest that 17p13.1 duplication may represent a clinically recognizable condition characterized partially by a characteristic facial phenotype, developmental delay, and obesity.

Pure duplication of 19p13.3.

Chromosomal abnormalities involving 19p13.3 have rarely been described in the published literature. Here, we report on a girl with a pure terminal duplication of 6.1 Mb on 19p13.3, caused by an unbalanced translocation der(19)t(10;19)(qter;p13.3)dn. Her phenotype included severe psychomotor developmental delay, skeletal malformations, and a distinctive facial appearance, similar to that of a patient previously reported by Lybaek et al. [Lybaek et al. (2009); Eur J Hum Genet 17:904-910]. These results suggest that a duplication of >3 Mb at the terminus of 19p13.3 might represent a distinct chromosomal syndrome.

Haploinsufficiency of NSD1 causes Sotos syndrome.

We isolated NSD1 from the 5q35 breakpoint in an individual with Sotos syndrome harboring a chromosomal translocation. We identified 1 nonsense, 3 frameshift and 20 submicroscopic deletion mutations of NSD1 among 42 individuals with sporadic cases of Sotos syndrome. The results indicate that haploinsufficiency of NSD1 is the major cause of Sotos syndrome.

A case of Marfanoid-progeroid-lipodystrophy syndrome: experimental proof of skipping exons and escaping nonsense-mediated decay.

We report a Japanese patient with tall stature, dolichocephaly, prominent forehead, narrow nasal ridge, mild retrognathia, subcutaneous fat reduction, bilateral entropion of both eyelids, high arched palate, long fingers, and mild hyperextensible finger joints as a case of Marfanoid-progeroid-lipodystrophy syndrome. Genetic investigation revealed a heterozygous variant NC_000015.10(NM_000138.5):c.8226+5G>A in the FBN1 gene. Skipping of exon 65 and escaping nonsense-mediated decay followed by frameshift were experimentally confirmed in the proband's mRNA.

Genetic association analysis of 77,539 genomes reveals rare disease etiologies.

The genetic etiologies of more than half of rare diseases remain unknown. Standardized genome sequencing and phenotyping of large patient cohorts provide an opportunity for discovering the unknown etiologies, but this depends on efficient and powerful analytical methods. We built a compact database, the 'Rareservoir', containing the rare variant genotypes and phenotypes of 77,539 participants sequenced by the 100,000 Genomes Project. We then used the Bayesian genetic association method BeviMed to infer associations between genes and each of 269 rare disease classes assigned by clinicians to the participants. We identified 241 known and 19 previously unidentified associations. We validated associations with ERG, PMEPA1 and GPR156 by searching for pedigrees in other cohorts and using bioinformatic and experimental approaches. We provide evidence that (1) loss-of-function variants in the Erythroblast Transformation Specific (ETS)-family transcription factor encoding gene ERG lead to primary lymphoedema, (2) truncating variants in the last exon of transforming growth factor-ß regulator PMEPA1 result in Loeys-Dietz syndrome and (3) loss-of-function variants in GPR156 give rise to recessive congenital hearing impairment. The Rareservoir provides a lightweight, flexible and portable system for synthesizing the genetic and phenotypic data required to study rare disease cohorts with tens of thousands of participants.

Trends in occurrence of twin births in Japan.

The rise in the rate of multiple births since the 1980s is due to the effect of advanced maternal age and increased use of assisted reproductive technology (ART). To determine the trends of prevalence in twin births, we studied the data of a population-based birth defects monitoring system during 26 years in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. A total of 15,380 twins from 7,690 deliveries were ascertained from 990,978 births in the Kanagawa Birth Defects Monitoring Program (KAMP) during 1981-2008. From the start of KAMP in 1981, the incidence of twin births had been consistently increasing from 57.0 to 98.6 per 10,000 deliveries until 2003, but after this time, the incidence declined to 78.5 in 2007. While the rate of monozygotic twins has been stable (∼40 per 10,000 deliveries) after 1990, that of dizygotic twins increased from 25.3 to 57.3 per 10,000 deliveries until 2002, and recovered to 40.1 in 2007. These results showed the most recent tendency of twin births and indicated that the single embryo transfer method can provide protection and reduction of perinatal risk caused by multiple births.

Expression analysis of a 17p terminal deletion, including YWHAE, but not PAFAH1B1, associated with normal brain structure on MRI in a young girl.

Tyrosine 3-monooxygenase/tryptophan 5-monooxygenase activation protein, epsilon polypeptide (YWHAE), on chromosome 17p13.3, has been shown to play a crucial role in neuronal development. The deletion of YWHAE, but not platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase, isoform 1b, subunit 1 (PAFAH1B1), underlies a newly recognized neurodevelopmental disorder, characterized by significant growth retardation, developmental delay/intellectual disability (DD/ID), distinctive facial appearance, and brain abnormalities. Here, we report on a girl with a terminal deletion of 17p13.3, including YWHAE but not PAFAH1B1, showing normal brain structure on MRI. She had mild developmental delay, a distinctive facial appearance, and severe growth retardation despite normal growth hormone levels, which was improved by growth hormone therapy. Expression analysis of YWHAE and PAFAH1B1 yielded results consistent with array CGH and FISH results. These results indicate that the dosage effect of YWHAE varies from severe to very mild structural brain abnormalities, and suggest that the expression of YWHAE is associated with a complex mechanism of neuronal development.

A novel nonsense variant in ARID1B causing simultaneous RNA decay and exon skipping is associated with Coffin-Siris syndrome.

Coffin-Siris syndrome (CSS) is a congenital disorder that is characterized by an absent/hypoplastic fifth distal phalanx, psychomotor developmental delay, and coarse facial features. One of the causative genes, ARID1B (AT-rich interactive domain-containing protein 1B), encodes components of the BAF chromatin remodeling complexes. Here, we report a case of a 3-year 8-month-old male with a novel nonsense variant (NM_001374820.1:c.4282C > T, p.(Gln1428*)) in the ARID1B gene, which was identified with whole-exome sequencing. He showed clinical symptoms of cleft soft palate, distinctive facial features (flat nasal bridge, thick eyebrows, and long eyelashes), right cryptorchidism, and hypertrichosis that partially overlapped with CSS. One of the most characteristic features of CSS is absent/hypoplastic fifth distal phalanx. He showed no obvious clinical finding in the lengths of his fingers or in the formation of his fingernails. However, radiographic analyses of the metacarpophalangeal bones revealed shortening of all the distal phalanges and fifth middle phalanges, suggesting brachydactyly. We performed mRNA analyses and revealed that both nonsense-mediated decay and nonsense-associated altered splicing were simultaneously caused by the c.4282C > T nonsense variant. The proband's clinical manifestations fit the previously reported criteria of disease for CSS or intellectual disability with ARID1B variant. Altogether, we suggest that c.4282C > T is a pathogenic variant that causes this clinical phenotype.

Severe upper airway stenosis in a boy with partial monosomy 16p13.3pter and partial trisomy 16q22qter.

We report the case of a boy with a de novo partial monosomy 16p13-pter and partial trisomy 16q22-qter detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization using subtelomeric probes for 16p and 16q. The boy had facial characteristics, skeletal features, congenital heart defects, an imperforate anus, urogenital malformations, pre/postnatal growth retardation, and psychomotor retardation, most of which have been reported both in partial monosomy 16p and partial trisomy 16q. In addition, he suffered from upper airway stenosis due to possible laryngeal stenosis with subglottic webs. The upper airway stenosis could be a rare complication of partial monosomy 16p or partial trisomy 16q, or a nonspecific malformation resulting from chromosomal abnormalities.

Further delineation of 9q22 deletion syndrome associated with basal cell nevus (Gorlin) syndrome: report of two cases and review of the literature.

Basal cell nevus syndrome (BCNS; Gorlin syndrome) is an autosomal dominant disorder, characterized by a predisposition to neoplasms and developmental abnormalities. BCNS is caused by mutations in the human homolog of the Drosophila patched gene-1, PTCH1, which is mapped on chromosome 9q22.3. Nonsense, frameshift, in-frame deletions, splice-site, and missense mutations have been found in the syndrome. Haploinsufficiency of PTCH1, which is caused by interstitial deletion of 9q22.3, is also responsible for the syndrome. To date, 19 cases with interstitial deletion of long arm of chromosome 9 involving the region of q22 have been reported. We describe two unrelated patients with some typical features of BCNS associated with deletion of 9q21.33-q31.1 and determined the boundary of the deletion by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) with bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones. The results showed that the size of deletions is between 15.33 and 16.04 Mb in patient 1 and between 18.08 and 18.54 Mb in patient 2. Although the size and breakpoints were different from those of previously reported cases, the clinical features are common to patients with 9q22 deletion associated with BCNS. Delineation of the 9q22 deletions and further consideration of the genes responsible for the characteristic manifestations may provide insight into this newly recognized deletion syndrome.

Novel USP9X variants in two patients with X-linked intellectual disability.

USP9X variants have been reported in patients with X-linked intellectual disability. Here, we report two female patients with intellectual disability and pigment abnormalities along Blaschko lines. Targeted resequencing identified two novel heterozygous variants, c.4068_4072del (p. (Leu1357Tyrfs*12)) and c.1201C>T (p. (Arg401*)), in USP9X. Our findings provide further evidence that USP9X variants cause intellectual disability.

Diamond-Blackfan anemia caused by chromosome 1p22 deletion encompassing RPL5.

Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) is an inherited anemia with multiple congenital malformations, and mutations in ribosomal protein genes have been identified as the underlying cause. We describe a female patient with mild DBA due to 1p22 deletion, encompassing the gene encoding 60S ribosomal protein L5 (RPL5). Considering previously reported cases together with our patient, we suggest that RPL5 haploinsufficiency might cause a less severe form of DBA than loss-of-function mutations.

Screening for partial deletions in the CREBBP gene in Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome patients using multiplex PCR/liquid chromatography.

Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (RTS, MIM 180849) is a multiple malformation syndrome characterized by growth retardation, developmental delay, and dysmorphic features, including down-slanting palpebral fissures, a beaked nose, broad thumbs, and halluces. Mutations in the gene encoding the CREB-binding protein gene (CREBBP, also known as CBP) on chromosome 16p13.3 were identified in 1995. Recently, we developed a mutation analysis protocol using denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) and identified heterozygous CREBBP mutations in 12 of 21 RTS patients. To test whether exonic deletions represent a common pathogenic mechanism, we assessed the copy number of all the coding exons using a recently developed method, the multiplex PCR/liquid chromatography assay (MP/LC). By using MP/LC, we performed screening for CREBBP exonic deletions among 25 RTS patients in whom no point mutations or small insertions/deletions were identified by DHPLC screening. We identified four classic RTS patients with deletions encompassing multiple exons (14-16, 5-31, 1-16, and 4-26). We conclude that large deletions including several exons are a relatively frequent cause of RTS, and that MP/LC is an effective method for detecting these deletions.

Neuroradiologic findings in Sotos syndrome.

Sotos syndrome is a well-known anomaly syndrome characterized by overgrowth, characteristic facial gestalt, and developmental delay, and haploinsufficiency of the NSD1 gene has been revealed as one of the major genetic causes. However, there have been only a few reports on neuroradiologic findings by computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and functional examination of the brain has not been reported. We examined three cases with typical Sotos syndrome, which also were confirmed by genetic analysis with a specific probe for the NSD1 gene. The results of MRI showed the characteristic features that have been reported previously. The findings obtained by using single-photon emission computed tomography and magnetic resonance spectroscopy suggested an association between mental delay and behavioral tendency in Sotos syndrome and immaturity in frontal brain function.

Epilepsy and neurological findings in 11 individuals with 1p36 deletion syndrome.

The 1p36 deletion syndrome is a newly delineated multiple congenital anomalies/mental retardation syndrome characterized by mental retardation, growth delay, epilepsy, congenital heart defects, characteristic facial appearance, and precocious puberty. We analyzed 11 patients by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using commercially available bacterial artificial chromosome and P1-derived artificial chromosome genomic clones to define the chromosomal deletion responsible for the 1p36 deletion syndrome. Cytogenetic investigation revealed two cases with a terminal deletion of 1p36. Nine patients had an apparently normal karyotype with standard G-bands by trypsin using Giemsa (GTG), but FISH screening with the highly polymorphic genetic marker D1Z2, which is mapped to 1p36.3 and contains an unusual reiterated 40-bp variable number tandem repeat, revealed a submicroscopic deletion. All patients had severe to profound mental retardation. Based on the University of California Santa Cruz Genome Browser, we constructed a deletion map and analyzed the relationship between neurological findings and chromosomal deletions for the 11 cases. Six cases had intractable epilepsy and three had no seizures. The common deletion interval was about 1 million base pairs (Mbp) located between RP11-82D16 and RP4-785P20 (Rho guanine exchange factor (GEF) 16). The severity of clinical symptoms correlates with the size of the deletion. This is demonstrated by the 3 patients with at least 8Mbp deletions that display profound mental retardation and congenital heart defects. Although haploinsufficiency of the potassium channel beta-subunit (KCNAB2) is thought to be responsible for intractable seizures in the 1p36 deletion syndrome, this was not the case for 3 of the 11 patients in this study. Further investigation of the 1p36 region is necessary to allow identification of genes responsible for the 1p36 deletion syndrome.