B-1 lymphocytes in adipose tissue as innate modulators of inflammation linked to cardiometabolic disease.

Fat is stored in distinct depots with unique features in both mice and humans and B cells reside in all adipose depots. We have shown that B cells modulate cardiometabolic disease through activities in two of these key adipose depots: visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT). VAT refers to the adipose tissue surrounding organs, within the abdomen and thorax, and is comprised predominantly of white adipocytes. This depot has been implicated in mediating obesity-related dysmetabolism. PVAT refers to adipose tissue surrounding major arteries. It had long been thought to exist to provide protection and insulation for the vessel, yet recent work demonstrates an important role for PVAT in harboring immune cells, promoting their function and regulating the biology of the underlying vessel. The role of B-2 cells and adaptive immunity in adipose tissue biology has been nicely reviewed elsewhere. Given that, the predominance of B-1 cells in adipose tissue at homeostasis, and the emerging role of B-1 cells in a variety of disease states, we will focus this review on how B-1 cells function in VAT and PVAT depots to promote homeostasis and limit inflammation linked to cardiometabolic disease and factors that regulate this function.

BAFF antagonism via the BAFF receptor 3 binding site attenuates BAFF 60-mer-induced classical NF-κB signaling and metabolic reprogramming of B cells.

Human recombinant B cell activating factor (BAFF) is secreted as 3-mers, which can associate to form 60-mers in culture supernatants. However, the presence of BAFF multimers in humans is still debated and it is incompletely understood how BAFF multimers activate the B cells. Here, we demonstrate that BAFF can exist as 60-mers or higher order multimers in human plasma. In vitro, BAFF 60-mer strongly induced the transcriptome of B cells which was partly attenuated by antagonism using a soluble fragment of BAFF receptor 3. Furthermore, compared to BAFF 3-mer, BAFF 60-mer strongly induced a transient classical and prolonged alternate NF-κB signaling, glucose oxidation by both aerobic glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, and succinate utilization by mitochondria. BAFF antagonism selectively attenuated classical NF-κB signaling and glucose oxidation. Altogether, our results suggest critical roles of BAFF 60-mer and its BAFF receptor 3 binding site in hyperactivation of B cells.

B Cell-Activating Factor Antagonism Attenuates the Growth of Experimental Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm.

B cell-activating factor (BAFF), part of a tumor necrosis factor family of cytokines, was recently identified as a regulator of atherosclerosis; however, its role in aortic aneurysm has not been determined. Here, the study examined the effect of selective BAFF antagonism using an anti-BAFF antibody (blocks binding of BAFF to receptors BAFF receptor 3, transmembrane activator and CAML interactor, and B-cell maturation antigen) and mBaffR-mFc (blocks binding of BAFF to BAFF receptor 3) on a murine model of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). In a prevention strategy, the antagonists were injected before the induction of AAA, and in an intervention strategy, the antagonists were injected after the induction of AAA. Both strategies attenuated the formation of AAA. In the intervention group, BAFF antagonism depleted most of the mature B-cell subsets in spleen and circulation, leading to enhanced resolution of inflammation in AAA as indicated by decreased infiltration of B cells and proinflammatory macrophages and a reduced number of apoptotic cells. In AAA tissues, B cells and macrophages were found in close contact. In vitro, B cells, irrespective of treatment with BAFF, impaired the efferocytosis activity of macrophages, suggesting a direct innate role of B cells on macrophage function. Altogether, BAFF antagonism affects survival of the mature B cells, promotes resolution of inflammation in the aorta, and attenuates the growth of AAA in mice.

Macrophage phenotype and bioenergetics are controlled by oxidized phospholipids identified in lean and obese adipose tissue.

Adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) adapt their metabolic phenotype either to maintain lean tissue homeostasis or drive inflammation and insulin resistance in obesity. However, the factors in the adipose tissue microenvironment that control ATM phenotypic polarization and bioenergetics remain unknown. We have recently shown that oxidized phospholipids (OxPL) uniquely regulate gene expression and cellular metabolism in Mox macrophages, but the presence of the Mox phenotype in adipose tissue has not been reported. Here we show, using extracellular flux analysis, that ATMs isolated from lean mice are metabolically inhibited. We identify a unique population of CX3CR1neg/F4/80low ATMs that resemble the Mox (Txnrd1+HO1+) phenotype to be the predominant ATM phenotype in lean adipose tissue. In contrast, ATMs isolated from obese mice had characteristics typical of the M1/M2 (CD11c+CD206+) phenotype with highly activated bioenergetics. Quantifying individual OxPL species in the stromal vascular fraction of murine adipose tissue, using targeted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, revealed that high fat diet-induced adipose tissue expansion led to a disproportional increase in full-length over truncated OxPL species. In vitro studies showed that macrophages respond to truncated OxPL species by suppressing bioenergetics and up-regulating antioxidant programs, mimicking the Mox phenotype of ATMs isolated from lean mice. Conversely, full-length OxPL species induce proinflammatory gene expression and an activated bioenergetic profile that mimics ATMs isolated from obese mice. Together, these data identify a redox-regulatory Mox macrophage phenotype to be predominant in lean adipose tissue and demonstrate that individual OxPL species that accumulate in adipose tissue instruct ATMs to adapt their phenotype and bioenergetic profile to either maintain redox homeostasis or to promote inflammation.

Novel Role of IL (Interleukin)-1ß in Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Formation and Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms.

OBJECTIVE: Neutrophils promote experimental abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) formation via a mechanism that is independent from MMPs (matrix metalloproteinases). Recently, we reported a dominant role of IL (interleukin)-1ß in the formation of murine experimental AAAs. Here, the hypothesis that IL-1ß-induced neutrophil extracellular trap formation (NETosis) promotes AAA was tested. APPROACH AND RESULTS: NETs were identified through colocalized staining of neutrophil, Cit-H3 (citrullinated histone H3), and DNA, using immunohistochemistry. NETs were detected in human AAAs and were colocalized with IL-1ß. In vitro, IL-1RA attenuated IL-1ß-induced NETosis in human neutrophils. Mechanistically, IL-1ß treatment of isolated neutrophils induced nuclear localization of ceramide synthase 6 and synthesis of C16-ceramide, which was inhibited by IL-1RA or fumonisin B1, an inhibitor of ceramide synthesis. Furthermore, IL-1RA or fumonisin B1 attenuated IL1-ß-induced NETosis. In an experimental model of murine AAA, NETs were detected at a very early stage-day 3 of aneurysm induction. IL-1ß-knockout mice demonstrated significantly lower infiltration of neutrophils to aorta and were protected from AAA. Adoptive transfer of wild-type neutrophils promoted AAA formation in IL-1ß-knockout mice. Moreover, treatment of wild-type mice with Cl-amidine, an inhibitor NETosis, significantly attenuated AAA formation, whereas, treatment with deoxyribonuclease, a DNA digesting enzyme, had no effect on AAA formation. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, the results suggest a dominant role of IL-1ß-induced NETosis in AAA formation.

Resolvin D1 decreases abdominal aortic aneurysm formation by inhibiting NETosis in a mouse model.

OBJECTIVE: Resolvins have been shown to attenuate inflammation, whereas NETosis, the process of neutrophils releasing neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), produces increased inflammation. It is hypothesized that treatment of animals with resolvin D1 (RvD1) would reduce abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) formation by inhibiting NETosis. METHODS: Wild-type 8- to 12-week-old C57BL/6 male mice (n = 47) and apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/-) mice (n = 20) were used in two models to demonstrate the effects of RvD1 on AAA growth. In the topical elastase AAA model, wild-type mice were divided into three groups: a deactivated elastase control group, in which sham surgery was performed using deactivated elastase and mice were intravenously injected with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) once a day until harvest; an elastase group, in which active elastase was used to induce AAA and mice were injected with PBS daily until harvest; and an RvD1-treated group, in which AAA was induced and mice were injected with RvD1 daily until harvest. In the angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced AAA model, ApoE-/- mice were fed a high-fat diet and implanted with osmotic infusion pumps containing Ang II (1000 ng/kg/min). The Ang II model was divided into two groups: an Ang II control group, in which Ang II was delivered and mice were injected with PBS daily until harvest; and an RvD1-treated group, in which Ang II was delivered and mice were injected with RvD1 daily until harvest. On postoperative day 3, day 14, or day 28, aortic and blood samples were collected for Western blot, histology, cytokine array, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and gelatin zymography after aortic diameter measurement. RESULTS: The day 14 RvD1-treated group demonstrated 42% reduced AAA diameter compared with the elastase group (P < .001). On postoperative day 3, the RvD1-treated group showed decreased levels of NETosis markers citrullinated histone H3 (P = .04) and neutrophil elastase (P = .002) compared with the elastase group. Among important cytokines involved in AAA formation, interleukin (IL) 1ß was downregulated (P = .02) whereas IL-10, a protective cytokine, was upregulated (P = .01) in the RvD1-treated group. Active matrix metalloproteinase 2 also decreased in the RvD1-treated group (P = .03). The RvD1-treated group in the Ang II AAA model, a second model, demonstrated reduced AAA diameter compared with the Ang II control group on day 28 (P < .046). The RvD1-treated group showed decreased levels of citrullinated histone H3 on day 3 (P = .002). Cytokines interferon γ, IL-1ß, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10, monocyte chemotactic protein 1, and regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) were all decreased on day 28 (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: RvD1-mediated inhibition of NETosis may represent a future medical treatment for the attenuation of AAA growth.

B-Cell Depletion Promotes Aortic Infiltration of Immunosuppressive Cells and Is Protective of Experimental Aortic Aneurysm.

OBJECTIVE: B-cell depletion therapy is widely used for treatment of cancers and autoimmune diseases. B cells are abundant in abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAA); however, it is unknown whether B-cell depletion therapy affects AAA growth. Using experimental models of murine AAA, we aim to examine the effect of B-cell depletion on AAA formation. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Wild-type or apolipoprotein E-knockout mice were treated with mouse monoclonal anti-CD20 or control antibodies and subjected to an elastase perfusion or angiotensin II infusion model to induce AAA, respectively. Anti-CD20 antibody treatment significantly depleted B1 and B2 cells, and strikingly suppressed AAA growth in both models. B-cell depletion resulted in lower circulating IgM levels, but did not affect the levels of IgG or cytokine/chemokine levels. Although the total number of leukocyte remained unchanged in elastase-perfused aortas after anti-CD20 antibody treatment, the number of B-cell subtypes was significantly lower. Interestingly, plasmacytoid dendritic cells expressing the immunomodulatory enzyme indole 2,3-dioxygenase were detected in the aortas of B-cell-depleted mice. In accordance with an increase in indole 2,3-dioxygenase+ plasmacytoid dendritic cells, the number of regulatory T cells was higher, whereas the expression of proinflammatory genes was lower in aortas of B-cell-depleted mice. In a coculture model, the presence of B cells significantly lowered the number of indole 2,3-dioxygenase+ plasmacytoid dendritic cells without affecting total plasmacytoid dendritic cell number. CONCLUSIONS: The present results demonstrate that B-cell depletion protects mice from experimental AAA formation and promotes emergence of an immunosuppressive environment in aorta.

Pharmacologic blockade and genetic deletion of androgen receptor attenuates aortic aneurysm formation.

BACKGROUND: Testosterone is theorized to play a major role in the pathophysiology of abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) because this disease occurs primarily in men. The role of the androgen receptor (AR) in the formation of AAAs has not been well elucidated, and therefore, it is hypothesized that androgen blockade will attenuate experimental aortic aneurysm formation. METHODS: Aortas of 8- to 12-week-old male C57Bl/6 wild-type (WT) mice or male AR knockout (AR(-/-)) mice were perfused with purified porcine pancreatic elastase (0.35 U/mL) to induce AAA formation. Two groups of WT male mice were treated with the AR blockers flutamide (50 mg/kg) or ketoconazole (150 mg/kg) twice daily by intraperitoneal injection. Aortas were harvested on day 14 after video micrometry was used to measure AAA diameter. Cytokine arrays and histologic analysis were performed on aortic tissue. Groups were compared using an analysis of variance and a Tukey post hoc test. RESULTS: Flutamide and ketoconazole treatment (mean ± standard error of the mean) attenuated AAA formation in WT mice (84.2% ± 22.8% [P = .009] and 91.5% ± 18.2% [P = .037]) compared with WT elastase (121% ± 5.23%). In addition, AR(-/-) mice showed attenuation of AAA growth (64.4% ± 22.7%; P < .0001) compared with WT elastase. Cytokine arrays of aortic tissue revealed decreased levels of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-α, IL-6, and IL-17 in flutamide-treated and AR(-/-) groups compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacologic and genetic AR blockade cause attenuation of AAA formation. Therapies for AR blockade used in prostate cancer may provide medical treatment to halt progression of AAAs in humans.

Inhibition of interleukin-1ß decreases aneurysm formation and progression in a novel model of thoracic aortic aneurysms.

BACKGROUND: Thoracic aortic aneurysms (TAAs) are common, but experimental TAA models are limited and the role of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) is undetermined. METHODS AND RESULTS: IL-1ß protein was measured in human TAAs and control aortas, and IL-1ß protein was increased ≈20-fold in human TAAs. To develop an experimental model of TAAs, 8- to 10-week-old male C57Bl/6 mice (wild type [WT]) underwent thoracotomy with application of periadventitial elastase (WT TAA) or saline (WT control; n=30 per group). Elastase treatment to thoracic aortas resulted in progressive dilation until day 14 with maximal dilation of 99.6±24.7% compared with 14.4±8.2% for WT saline control (P<0.0001). WT TAAs demonstrated elastin fragmentation, smooth muscle cell loss, macrophage infiltration, and increased IL-1ß expression. Next, TAAs were induced in mice deficient of IL-1ß (IL-1ß knockout) or IL-1 receptor (IL-1R knockout; n=10 each). Genetic deletion of IL-1ß and IL-1R significantly decreased thoracic aortic dilation (IL-1ß knockout=54.2±16.8% and IL-1R knockout=62.6±17.2% versus WT TAA=104.7±23.8%; P<0.001for both). IL-1ß knockout and IL-1R knockout aortas demonstrated preserved elastin and smooth muscle cells with fewer inflammatory cells. Correspondingly, IL-1ß and IL-1R knockout aortas had decreased inflammatory cytokine and matrix metalloproteinase 9 expression. Separately, WT mice pretreated with either IL-1R antagonist anakinra (100 mg/kg per day) or vehicle alone (control) underwent elastase treatment. Pretreatment of WT mice with anakinra attenuated TAA formation (control: 99.2±15.5% versus anakinra: 68.3±19.2%; P<0.005). Finally, to investigate treatment of small TAAs, WT mice were treated with anakinra 3 days after TAA induction. Anakinra treatment in WT mice with small TAAs reduced aortic dilation on day 14 (control treatment: 89.1±18.6% versus anakinra treatment: 59.7±25.7%; P=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Periadventitial application of elastase to murine thoracic aortas reproducibly produced aneurysms with molecular and histological features consistent with TAA disease. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of IL-1ß decreased TAA formation and progression, indicating that IL-1ß may be a potential target for TAA treatment.

B2 cells suppress experimental abdominal aortic aneurysms.

Recent reports of rupture in patients with abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) receiving B-cell depletion therapy highlight the importance of understanding the role of B cells (B1 and B2 subsets) in the development of AAA. We hypothesized that B2 cells aggravate experimental aneurysm formation. The IHC staining revealed infiltration of B cells in the aorta of wild-type (C57BL/6) mice at day 7 after elastase perfusion and persisted through day 21. Quantification of immune cell types using flow cytometry at day 14 showed significantly greater infiltration of mononuclear cells, including B cells (B2: 93% of total B cells) and T cells in elastase-perfused aortas compared with saline-perfused or normal aortas. muMT (mature B-cell deficient) mice were prone to AAA formation similar to wild-type mice in two different experimental AAA models. Contradicting our hypothesis, adoptive transfer of B2 cells suppressed AAA formation (102.0% ± 7.3% versus 75.2% ± 5.5%; P < 0.05) with concomitant increase in the splenic regulatory T cell (0.24% ± 0.03% versus 0.92% ± 0.23%; P < 0.05) and decrease in aortic infiltration of mononuclear cells. Our data suggest that B2 cells constitute the largest population of B cells in experimental AAA. Furthermore, B2 cells, in the absence of other B-cell subsets, increase splenic regulatory T-cell population and suppress AAA formation.

Maternal nutrition influences angiogenesis in the placenta through peroxisome proliferator activated receptors: A novel hypothesis.

Placental angiogenesis is critical to maintain adequate blood flow during gestation, and any alterations in this process can result in an adverse pregnancy. Growing evidence indicates that suboptimal maternal nutrition can alter placental development. Although the underlying mechanisms are not clear, maternal nutrition likely influences the expression of genes involved in placental development through regulation of various transcription factors such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), which can be activated by ligands including long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Indeed, several studies demonstrated a role for PPAR in implantation, trophoblast differentiation, and angiogenesis. Alterations in maternal nutrition during pregnancy can affect the expression of PPARs via epigenetic mechanisms or through homocysteine, which is known to compete for PPARs. This review discusses the role of maternal nutrition-particularly micronutrients like folate, vitamin B12 , and omega-3 fatty acids-in modulating the activity of PPARs during placentation and angiogenesis, which affects placental and fetal growth. Additional animal and human studies need to be undertaken to elucidate the molecular mechanisms through which maternal nutrition regulates PPARs, specifically to determine whether PPARs affect placental angiogenesis directly through angiogenic factors or indirectly by modulating trophoblast differentiation.

5-Lipoxygenase pathway in experimental abdominal aortic aneurysms.

OBJECTIVE: The impact of leukotriene production by the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) pathway in the pathophysiology of abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) has been debated. Moreover, a clear mechanism through which 5-LO influences AAA remains unclear. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Aneurysm formation was attenuated in 5-LO(-/-) mice, and in lethally irradiated wild-type mice reconstituted with 5-LO(-/-) bone marrow in an elastase perfusion model. Pharmacological inhibition of 5-LO-attenuated aneurysm formation in both aortic elastase perfused wild-type and angiotensin II-treated LDLr(-/-) (low-density lipoprotein receptor) mice, with resultant preservation of elastin and fewer 5-LO and MMP9 (matrix metalloproteinase)-producing cells. Separately, analysis of wild-type mice 7 days after elastase perfusion showed that 5-LO inhibition was associated with reduced polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration to the aortic wall. Importantly, 5-LO inhibition initiated 3 days after elastase perfusion in wild-type mice arrested progression of small AAA. Human AAA and control aorta corroborated these elastin and 5-LO expression patterns. CONCLUSIONS: Inhibition of 5-LO by pharmacological or genetic approaches attenuates aneurysm formation and prevents fragmentation of the medial layer in 2 unique AAA models. Administration of 5-LO inhibitor in small AAA slows progression of AAA. Targeted interruption of the 5-LO pathway is a potential treatment strategy in AAA.

Adenosine 2A receptor modulates inflammation and phenotype in experimental abdominal aortic aneurysms.

Activation of the adenosine 2A receptor (A2AR) reduces inflammation in models of acute injury but contribution in development of chronic abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) is unknown. Elastase perfusion to induce AAA formation in A2AR-knockout (A2ARKO) and C57BL6/J wild-type (WT) mice resulted in nearly 100% larger aneurysms in A2ARKO compared to WT at d 14 (P<0.05), with evidence of greater elastin fragmentation, more immune cell infiltration, and increased matrix metallatoproteinase (MMP) 9 expression (P<0.05). Separately, exogenous A2AR antagonism in elastase-perfused WT mice also resulted in larger aneurysms (P<0.05), while A2AR agonism limited aortic dilatation (P<0.05). Activated Thy-1.2(+) T lymphocytes from WT mice treated in vitro with A2AR antagonist increased cytokine production, and treatment with A2AR agonist decreased cytokine production (P<0.05 for all). Primary activated CD4(+) T lymphocytes from A2ARKO mice exhibited greater chemotaxis (P<0.05). A2AR antagonist increased chemotaxis of activated CD4(+) cells from WT mice in vitro, and A2AR agonist reduced this effect (P<0.05). A2AR activation attenuates AAA formation partly by inhibiting immune cell recruitment and reducing elastin fragmentation. These findings support augmenting A2AR signaling as a putative target for limiting aneurysm formation.

BAFF neutralization impairs the autoantibody-mediated clearance of dead adipocytes and aggravates obesity-induced insulin resistance.

B cell-activating factor (BAFF) is a critical TNF-family cytokine that regulates homeostasis and peripheral tolerance of B2 cells. BAFF overproduction promotes autoantibody generation and autoimmune diseases. During obesity, BAFF is predominantly produced by white adipose tissue (WAT), and IgG autoantibodies against adipocytes are identified in the WAT of obese humans. However, it remains to be determined if the autoantibodies formed during obesity affect WAT remodeling and systemic insulin resistance. Here, we show that IgG autoantibodies are generated in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice that bind to apoptotic adipocytes and promote their phagocytosis by macrophages. Next, using murine models of obesity in which the gonadal WAT undergoes remodeling, we found that BAFF neutralization depleted IgG autoantibodies, increased the number of dead adipocytes, and exacerbated WAT inflammation and insulin resistance. RNA sequencing of the stromal vascular fraction from the WAT revealed decreased expression of immunoglobulin light-chain and heavy-chain variable genes suggesting a decreased repertoire of B cells after BAFF neutralization. Further, the B cell activation and the phagocytosis pathways were impaired in the WAT of BAFF-neutralized mice. In vitro, plasma IgG fractions from BAFF-neutralized mice reduced the phagocytic clearance of apoptotic adipocytes. Altogether, our study suggests that IgG autoantibodies developed during obesity, at least in part, dampens exacerbated WAT inflammation and systemic insulin resistance.

Preconceptional omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on a micronutrient-deficient diet improves the reproductive cycle in Wistar rats.

Folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiencies are associated with high reproductive risks ranging from infertility to fetal structural defects. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of preconceptional omega-3 fatty acid supplementation (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) to a micronutrient-deficient diet on the reproductive cycle in Wistar rats. Female rats were divided into five groups from birth and throughout pregnancy: a control group, a folic acid-deficient (FD) group, a vitamin B12-deficient (BD) group, a folic acid-deficient + omega-3 fatty acid-supplemented (FDO) group and a vitamin B12 deficient + omega-3 fatty acid-supplemented (BDO) group. Dams were killed on gestation Day 20 and their ovaries and mammary glands were dissected out and subjected to histological examination. Maternal micronutrient deficiency (FD and BD groups) resulted in an abnormal oestrous cycle (P<0.001), whereas omega-3 fatty acid supplementation (FDO and BDO groups) restored the oestrous cycle to normal. There were fewer corpora lutea in the ovaries of FD rats compared with controls. In addition, rats in both the FD and BD groups exhibited an absence of lactating ducts in their mammary glands compared with controls. The findings of the present study indicate, for the first time, that maternal micronutrient deficiency affects the oestrous cycle and morphology of the ovary and mammary glands. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation ameliorated these effects. This may have implications for infertility and pregnancy outcomes.

Role of Transcription Factors in the Management of Preterm Birth: Impact on Future Treatment Strategies.

Preterm birth is defined as the birth of a neonate before 37 weeks of gestation and is considered as a leading cause of the under five deaths of neonates. Neonates born preterm are known to have higher perinatal mortality and morbidity with associated risks of low birth weight, respiratory distress syndrome, gastrointestinal, immunologic, central nervous system, hearing, and vision problems, cerebral palsy, and delayed development. India leads the list of countries with the greatest number of preterm births. The studies focusing on the molecular mechanisms related to the etiology of preterm birth have described the role of different transcription factors. With respect to this, transcription factors like peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPAR), nuclear factor kappa ß (NF-kß), nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and progesterone receptor (PR) are known to be associated with preterm labor. All these transcription factors are linked together with a common cascade involving inflammatory processes. Thus, the current review describes the possible cross-talk between these transcription factors and their therapeutic potential to prevent or manage preterm labor.

Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 regulates myoendothelial junction formation.

RATIONALE: Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) is a biomarker for several vascular disease states; however, its target of action within the vessel wall is undefined. OBJECTIVE: Determine the ability of PAI-1 to regulate myoendothelial junction (MEJ) formation. METHODS AND RESULTS: MEJs are found throughout the vasculature linking endothelial cells (ECs) and vascular smooth muscle cells. Using a vascular cell coculture we isolated MEJ fractions and performed two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis. Mass spectrometry identified PAI-1 as being enriched within MEJ fractions, which we confirmed in vivo. In the vascular cell coculture, recombinant PAI-1 added to the EC monolayer significantly increased MEJs. Conversely, addition of a PAI-1 monoclonal antibody to the EC monolayer reduced the number of MEJs. This was also observed in vivo where mice fed a high fat diet had increased PAI-1 and MEJs and the number of MEJs in coronary arterioles of PAI-1(-/-) mice was significantly reduced when compared to C57Bl/6 mice. The presence of MEJs in PAI-1(-/-) coronary arterioles was restored when their hearts were transplanted into and exposed to the circulation of C57Bl/6 mice. Application of biotin-conjugated PAI-1 to the EC monolayer in vitro confirmed the ability of luminal PAI-1 to translocate to the MEJ. Functionally, phenylephrine-induced heterocellular calcium communication in the vascular cell coculture was temporally enhanced when recombinant PAI-1 was present, and prolonged when PAI-1 was absent. CONCLUSION: Our data implicate circulating PAI-1 as a key regulator of MEJ formation and a potential target for pharmacological intervention in diseases with vascular abnormalities (eg, diabetes mellitus).

Identification of a novel macrophage phenotype that develops in response to atherogenic phospholipids via Nrf2.

RATIONALE: Macrophages change their phenotype and biological functions depending on the microenvironment. In atherosclerosis, oxidative tissue damage accompanies chronic inflammation; however, macrophage phenotypic changes in response to oxidatively modified molecules are not known. OBJECTIVE: To examine macrophage phenotypic changes in response to oxidized phospholipids that are present in atherosclerotic lesions. METHODS AND RESULTS: We show that oxidized phospholipid-treated murine macrophages develop into a novel phenotype (Mox) that is strikingly different from the conventional M1 and M2 macrophage phenotypes. Compared to M1 and M2, Mox macrophages show a different gene expression pattern, as well as decreased phagocytotic and chemotactic capacity. Treatment with oxidized phospholipids induces both M1 and M2 macrophages to switch to the Mox phenotype. Whole-genome expression array analysis and subsequent gene ontology clustering revealed that the Mox phenotype was characterized by abundant overrepresentation of Nrf2-mediated expression of redox-regulatory genes. In macrophages isolated from Nrf2(-/-) mice, oxidized phospholipid-induced gene expression and regulation of redox status were compromised. Moreover, we found that Mox macrophages comprise 30% of all macrophages in advanced atherosclerotic lesions of low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout (LDLR(-/-)) mice. CONCLUSIONS: Together, we identify Nrf2 as a key regulator in the formation of a novel macrophage phenotype (Mox) that develops in response to oxidative tissue damage. The unique biological properties of Mox macrophages suggest this phenotype may play an important role in atherosclerotic lesion development as well as in other settings of chronic inflammation.

Wild type and gain of function mutant TP53 can regulate the sensitivity of pancreatic cancer cells to chemotherapeutic drugs, EGFR/Ras/Raf/MEK, and PI3K/mTORC1/GSK-3 pathway inhibitors, nutraceuticals and alter metabolic properties.

TP53 is a master regulator of many signaling and apoptotic pathways involved in: aging, cell cycle progression, gene regulation, growth, apoptosis, cellular senescence, DNA repair, drug resistance, malignant transformation, metastasis, and metabolism. Most pancreatic cancers are classified as pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas (PDAC). The tumor suppressor gene TP53 is mutated frequently (50-75%) in PDAC. Different types of TP53 mutations have been observed including gain of function (GOF) point mutations and various deletions of the TP53 gene resulting in lack of the protein expression. Most PDACs have point mutations at the KRAS gene which result in constitutive activation of KRas and multiple downstream signaling pathways. It has been difficult to develop specific KRas inhibitors and/or methods that result in recovery of functional TP53 activity. To further elucidate the roles of TP53 in drug-resistance of pancreatic cancer cells, we introduced wild-type (WT) TP53 or a control vector into two different PDAC cell lines. Introduction of WT-TP53 increased the sensitivity of the cells to multiple chemotherapeutic drugs, signal transduction inhibitors, drugs and nutraceuticals and influenced key metabolic properties of the cells. Therefore, TP53 is a key molecule which is critical in drug sensitivity and metabolism of PDAC.