Comprehensive global genome dynamics of Chlamydia trachomatis show ancient diversification followed by contemporary mixing and recent lineage expansion.

Chlamydia trachomatis is the world's most prevalent bacterial sexually transmitted infection and leading infectious cause of blindness, yet it is one of the least understood human pathogens, in part due to the difficulties of in vitro culturing and the lack of available tools for genetic manipulation. Genome sequencing has reinvigorated this field, shedding light on the contemporary history of this pathogen. Here, we analyze 563 full genomes, 455 of which are novel, to show that the history of the species comprises two phases, and conclude that the currently circulating lineages are the result of evolution in different genomic ecotypes. Temporal analysis indicates these lineages have recently expanded in the space of thousands of years, rather than the millions of years as previously thought, a finding that dramatically changes our understanding of this pathogen's history. Finally, at a time when almost every pathogen is becoming increasingly resistant to antimicrobials, we show that there is no evidence of circulating genomic resistance in C. trachomatis.

Unsafe sexual behaviors among HIV-positive men and women in Honduras: the role of discrimination, condom access, and gender.

BACKGROUND: We conducted a study among HIV-positive men and women in Honduras to describe demographics, HIV risk behaviors and sexually transmitted infection prevalence, and identify correlates of unsafe sex. METHODS: Participants were recruited from HIV clinics and nongovernmental organizations in Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula, Honduras in a cross-sectional study in 2006. We used audio-assisted computer interviews on demographics; behaviors in the past 12 months, 6 months, and 30 days; and access to care. Assays performed included herpes (HSV-2 Herpes Select), syphilis (rapid plasma reagin [RPR] and Treponema pallidum particle agglutination assay [TPPA]) serology, and other sexually transmitted infections by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to assess variables associated with unprotected sex across all partner types in the past 12 months. RESULTS: Of 810 participants, 400 were from Tegucigalpa and 410 from San Pedro Sula; 367 (45%) were men. Mean age was 37 years (interquartile range: 31-43). Consistent condom use for men and women was below 60% for all partner types. In multivariate analysis, unprotected sex was more likely among women (odds ratio [OR]: 1.9, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.2-3.1, P = 0.007), those with HIV diagnoses within the past year (OR: 2.0, 95% CI: 1.1-3.7, P = 0.016), those reporting difficulty accessing condoms (OR: 2.6, 95% CI: 1.4-4.7, P = 0.003), and those reporting discrimination (OR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.1-3.0, P = 0.016). CONCLUSIONS: Programs targeting HIV-positive patients need to address gender-based disparities, improve condom access and use, and help establish a protective legal and policy environment free of stigma and discrimination.

High rates of STD and sexual risk behaviors among Garífunas in Honduras.

BACKGROUND: Honduras has the highest concentration of HIV and AIDS cases in Central America, with an estimated adult HIV prevalence of 1.5%. Prevalence is higher among certain ethnic groups such as the Garífuna with a reported HIV prevalence of 8%. METHODS: A biological and behavioral survey was conducted on a stratified random sample of the Garífuna population in Honduras, using computer-assisted interviews. Blood was tested for HIV, herpes simplex type 2 (HSV-2), and syphilis; urine was tested for Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoea, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Mycoplasma genitalum. RESULTS: We enrolled a total of 817 participants, 41% female and 51% male. Estimated prevalences and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were: HIV, 4.5% (95% CI: 3.0 to 6.6), HSV-2, 51.1% (95% CI: 46.7 to 55.6), and syphilis seropositivity, 2.4% (95% CI: 1.4 to 4.0). Sexually transmitted infections in urine were: chlamydia, 6.8% (95% CI: 4.7 to 9.7), gonorrhea, 1.1% (95% CI: 0.4 to 2.9), trichomoniasis, 10.5% (95% CI: 8.1 to 13.6), and Mycoplasma genitalium, 7.1% (95% CI: 5.1 to 9.9). Consistent condom use was low with stable (10.6%) and casual (41.4%) partners. In multivariate analysis, HIV was associated with rural residence. HSV-2 was associated with female sex, older age, and syphilis seropositivity. CONCLUSIONS: We found a moderate prevalence of HIV and a high prevalence of HSV-2 among the Garífunas. HSV-2 may increase the vulnerability of these populations to HIV in the future. Intervention strategies should emphasize sexually transmitted infection control and condom promotion, specifically targeting the Garífuna population.

Validación de flujogramas para el manejo sindrómico de flujo vaginal y dolor abdominal bajo en Honduras / Validation of STI flowcharts for the syndromic management of vaginal discharge and lower abdominal pain in Hond

OBJETIVOS: Validar los flujogramas propuestos para diagnóstico y tratamiento sindrómico de Flujo Vaginal Y Dolor Abdominal Bajo, estableciendo su sensibilidad, especificidad, valor predictivo positivo(vpp)en comparación con el diagnóstico etiológico y estudiar la relación existente entre la presencia de flujo vaginal, dolor abdominal bajo y otras ITS con la infección por VIH en población estudiada. METODOS: Es un estudio prospectivo con componentes descriptivos y analíticos, que abarca una muestra de 933 mujeres sexualmente activas, embarazadas o no, que se presentaron espontáneamente con queja de flujo vaginal y/o dolor abdominal bajo a 8 Centros de Salud de la Región Sanitaria Metropolitana durante los meses de octubre de 1999 a noviembre de 2000. Los criterios utilizados para validar los métodos propuestos fueron la sensibilidad, la especificidad y el valor predictivo positivo RESULTADOS:Validez de los flujogramas propuestos: varios flujogramas fueron probados por simulación y validados para flujo vaginal. Cuando se validó el primer flujograma para utilización en el paìs basado tan solo en la evaluación de riesgo, la sensibilidad, especificidad y vpp para cervicitis fueron respectivamente de 16%,94% y 10%. Al agregarse en el segundo flujograma el examen con espéculo con el objetivo de identificar el origen y características de la secreción, la sensibilidad, especificidad y vpp fueron, para cervicitis de 49%,53% y 4%, para tricomoniasis y/o vaginosis bacteriana de 46%,62% y 38%.Al utilizarse las microscopía en el tercer flujograma la sensibilidad, la especificidad y vpp fueron para cervicitis, de 57%,60% y 6% y para tricomoniasis de 90%,100% y100%.En el cuarto flujograma, al utilizarse algunas características específicas de cervicitis y añadiendo la prueba de pH para la vaginitis/vaginosa, la sensibilidad, especificidad y vvp fueron respectivamente para cervicitis de 67%,59% y 6%, para tricomoniasis y/o vaginosis bacteriana de 96%,45% y 47%.Como en el estu