Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection in intestinal transplant recipients during the first year post-transplant.

BACKGROUND: Clostridium difficile is the most common cause of healthcare-associated infectious diarrhea. Risk factors for C. difficile infections (CDI) in intestinal transplant recipients (ITR) are not well-defined. The aim of our study was to assess specific risk factors for CDI in ITR. METHODS: This is a 1:3 case-control study that included 29 ITR who developed CDI (cases) and 87 ITR without CDI (controls) observed during the first year post-transplantation. Wilcoxon rank sum and Fisher's exact tests were used to compare variables. Univariate and multivariable conditional logistic regressions analysis were performed to identify risk factors for CDI. RESULTS: The multivariable conditional logistic regression analysis showed that proton pump inhibitors (PPI) administration (odds ratio [OR] = 0.06; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.007-0.52; P = .01) was the only factor associated with lower rates of CDI. Outcomes for cases vs controls: rejection episodes 24.14% vs 20.69% (P = .7), graft loss 0% vs 2.3% (P = .99), and survival rate 1 year post-transplantation 79.3% (59.6-90.1%) vs 87.2% (78.1-92.7%) (P = .38). CONCLUSIONS: Proton pump inhibitor administration might be protective for CDI in ITR. Risks factors for CDI might be different in ITR compared to other populations; anatomical differences and medications administered in the post-transplantation period may affect intestinal microbiota.

Elevated ST2 Distinguishes Incidences of Pediatric Heart and Small Bowel Transplant Rejection.

Elevated serum soluble (s) suppressor of tumorigenicity-2 is observed during cardiovascular and inflammatory bowel diseases. To ascertain whether modulated ST2 levels signify heart (HTx) or small bowel transplant (SBTx) rejection, we quantified sST2 in serially obtained pediatric HTx (n = 41) and SBTx recipient (n = 18) sera. At times of biopsy-diagnosed HTx rejection (cellular and/or antibody-mediated), serum sST2 was elevated compared to rejection-free time points (1714 ± 329 vs. 546.5 ± 141.6 pg/mL; p = 0.0002). SBTx recipients also displayed increased serum sST2 during incidences of rejection (7536 ± 1561 vs. 2662 ± 543.8 pg/mL; p = 0.0347). Receiver operator characteristic (ROC) analysis showed that serum sST2 > 600 pg/mL could discriminate time points of HTx rejection and nonrejection (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.724 ± 0.053; p = 0.0003). ROC analysis of SBTx measures revealed a similar discriminative capacity (AUC = 0.6921 ± 0.0820; p = 0.0349). Quantitative evaluation of both HTx and SBTx biopsies revealed that rejection significantly increased allograft ST2 expression. Pathway and Network Analysis of biopsy data pinpointed ST2 in the dominant pathway modulated by rejection and predicted tumor necrosis factor-α and IL-1ß as upstream activators. In total, our data indicate that alloimmune-associated pro-inflammatory cytokines increase ST2 during rejection. They also demonstrate that routine serum sST2 quantification, potentially combined with other biomarkers, should be investigated further to aid in the noninvasive diagnosis of rejection.

Parvovirus associated fulminant hepatic failure and aplastic anemia treated successfully with liver and bone marrow transplantation. A report of two cases.

Aplastic anemia (AA) has been observed in nearly a third of patients undergoing liver transplantation (LT) for non-A-E fulminant hepatic failure (FHF). Few of these patients have been successfully managed with sequential LT and bone marrow transplantation (BMT). No causative agent has been identified for the FHF or AA in these reported cases. At our center, two patients, aged 15 years and 7 years, respectively, underwent sequential living-related LT and living-unrelated BMT. These patients are 10/9 years and 5/4 years post-LT/BMT. Human parvovirus B19 (HPV-B19) was established as the causative agent for FHF in both these patients by polymerase chain reaction. This report presents the first two cases associating HPV-B19 with FHF and AA who underwent sequential LT and BMT with excellent outcomes.

Characterization of the ileal microbiota in rejecting and nonrejecting recipients of small bowel transplants.

Small bowel transplantation can be a life-preserving procedure for patients with irreversible intestinal failure. Allograft rejection remains a major source of morbidity and mortality and its accurate diagnosis and treatment are critical. In this study, we used pyrosequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA gene tags to compare the composition of the ileal microbiota present during nonrejection, prerejection and active rejection states in small bowel transplant patients. During episodes of rejection, the proportions of phylum Firmicutes (p < 0.001) and the order Lactobacillales (p < 0.01) were significantly decreased, while those of the phylum Proteobacteria, especially the family Enterobacteriaceae, were significantly increased (p < 0.005). Receiver-operating characteristic analysis revealed that relative proportions of several bacterial taxa in ileal effluents and especially Firmicutes, could be used to discriminate between nonrejection and active rejection. In conclusion, the findings obtained during this study suggest that small bowel transplant rejection is associated with changes in the microbial populations in ileal effluents and support microbiota profiling as a potential diagnostic biomarker of rejection. Future studies should investigate if the dysbiosis that we observed is a cause or a consequence of the rejection process.

Staphylococcus aureus infections after liver transplantation.

BACKGROUND: More data on the risk factors and outcomes after Staphylococcus aureus infections in liver transplantation are needed. METHODS: Liver recipients with S. aureus infections (cases) were retrospectively identified and compared to gender-, age-, and transplant type-matched (1:2) non-S. aureus-infected controls. Risk factors associated with S. aureus infections were identified by conditional logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: We evaluated 51 patients (median age 52 years). First S. aureus infections developed at a median time of 29 days after transplantation, with 52.94% of them in the first month; 88.24% were nosocomial, 41.18% were polymicrobial, and 47.06% were caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Surgical site infections represented 58.82% and bacteremia 23.53%. By univariate analysis, patients with S. aureus infections were intubated more frequently (odds ratio [OR] 26.92, 95% confidence interval [CI] 3.23-3,504.15, p = 0.0006), had a central line (OR 11.69, 95% CI 1.42-95.9, p = 0.02), or recent surgery (OR 26.92, 95% CI 3.23-3,504.15, p = 0.0006) compared with controls. By multivariate analysis, subjects who underwent surgery within 2 weeks prior to infection had a 26.9 times higher risk of developing S. aureus infection (95% CI 3.23-3,504.15, p = 0.0006); these results were adjusted for matched criteria. S. aureus infections did not affect graft or patient survival, but the study was not powered for such outcomes. CONCLUSION: Only recent surgical procedure was found to be a significant independent risk factor for S. aureus infections after liver transplantation.

Incidence, risk factors, and outcomes associated with cytomegalovirus disease in small bowel transplant recipients.

Despite improved prophylaxis, monitoring, and more efficient immunosuppression, CMV infection remains a common opportunistic infection in transplant recipients. We assessed the incidence of CMV disease in pediatric SBT recipients, the timing of CMV disease after transplantation, and its impact on patient outcome. The medical records of 98 SBT recipients were reviewed. We performed descriptive analysis, regression analysis, and Kaplan-Meier curves to determine the time-to-event after transplantation. Fifty-three percent patients were male and 47% female, with a mean age of 38.3 months. Thirty-five percent of patients received prophylactic VGC, 55% GCV, 10% a combination of GCV/VGC, and 99% CMV immunoglobulins. A total of 24.5% recipients were CMV D+/R- (CMV serostatus donor positive/recipient negative). Seven (c. 7%) patients developed CMV disease. CMV disease was associated with 2.5 times (0.52-12.1; p = 0.25) higher rate of CMV mismatch and 11.1 times (1.3-95.9; p = 0.03) higher risk of death. CMV prophylaxis increased time-to-death (p = 0.074). Time-to-CMV disease was shorter in patients with enteritis (p < 0.0001), and CMV disease was associated with shorter time-to-death after transplantation (p = 0.001). CMV disease in SBT recipients was associated with an 11-fold mortality increase and a fourfold faster time-to-death. Time-to-death was significantly shorter with CMV enteritis.

Hepatitis C virus replication in mice with chimeric human livers.

Lack of a small animal model of the human hepatitis C virus (HCV) has impeded development of antiviral therapies against this epidemic infection. By transplanting normal human hepatocytes into SCID mice carrying a plasminogen activator transgene (Alb-uPA), we generated mice with chimeric human livers. Homozygosity of Alb-uPA was associated with significantly higher levels of human hepatocyte engraftment, and these mice developed prolonged HCV infections with high viral titers after inoculation with infected human serum. Initial increases in total viral load were up to 1950-fold, with replication confirmed by detection of negative-strand viral RNA in transplanted livers. HCV viral proteins were localized to human hepatocyte nodules, and infection was serially passaged through three generations of mice confirming both synthesis and release of infectious viral particles. These chimeric mice represent the first murine model suitable for studying the human hepatitis C virus in vivo.

Incidence and outcome of fungal infections in pediatric small bowel transplant recipients.

BACKGROUND: Data on the incidence, timing, and outcome of fungal infections in pediatric small bowel transplantation (SBT) are lacking. METHODS: Cases of pediatric SBT from January 2003 through December 2007 were collected. Standard induction was with thymoglobulin and/or basiliximab and maintenance immunosuppression was a tacrolimus-based regimen. Chi-square was used for categorical variables and Kaplan-Meier for survival analyses. RESULTS: A total 98 recipients were included; 25 patients developed 59 episodes of Candida infections and 4 episodes of invasive aspergillosis (incidence 25.5%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 17%, 34%). Of the Candida species, 37.3% were Candida albicans and 62.7% non-albicans Candida. Of all yeast infections, 66.1% were fungemia, 28.8% intra-abdominal infections, 1.7% empyema, and 3.4% urinary tract infection. Of the Candida intra-abdominal infections, 41.2% developed in the first month post transplantation, while 79.5% of candidemia developed after >6 months. Median time from transplantation to fungal infection was significantly shorter for abdominal infections compared with fungemia (9 versus 163 days; P=0.004). All-cause mortality was not significantly different between patients with and without fungal infections (32.3% versus 29.8%; odds ratio=1.12, 95% CI 0.45, 2.8). CONCLUSION: Fungal infections occurred in 25% of SBT recipients and C. albicans was the most common species. Intra-abdominal fungal infections occurred earlier (<1 month) than fungemia (>6 months) post transplantation.

Impact of Immunoglobulin Therapy in Intestinal Transplant Recipients With Posttransplantation Hypogammaglobulinemia.

BACKGROUND: Severe hypogammaglobulinemia (HGG) (IgG <400 mg/dL) following intestinal transplantation is common. Although IgG replacement therapy is commonly used, clinical outcomes associated with increasing IgG levels to >400 mg/dL are not well described. METHODS: Kaplan-Meier analysis was performed to estimate survival, the log-rank test to compare survival distributions between groups, and the Fisher exact test to determine the association between HGG and rejection. RESULTS: A total of 23 intestinal transplant (IT) recipients with a median age of 2.3 years (range, 0.7-41 years) at the time of HGG diagnosis were included. The types of transplants were liver-small bowel (73.9%), liver-small bowel-kidney (8.7%), and small bowel only (17.4%). The 3-year survival after the diagnosis of HGG was 50.2% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 28.2%-68.7%). There was no difference in survival (P = .67) when patients were dichotomized based upon IgG level at last follow-up (IgG ≥400 mg/dL, n = 14; and IgG <400 mg/dL, n = 9). There was no also evidence of an association between survival and: total dose (P = .58), frequency (P = .11), and number of IgG doses administered (P = .8). There was no difference in survival between patients receiving (n = 12) or not receiving (n = 11) cytomegalovirus hyperimmunoglobulin (P = .10). CONCLUSIONS: Improved survival rates were not found in our IT recipients with severe HGG with immunoglobulin therapy to IgG levels of ≥400 mg/dL, even when cytomegalovirus hyperimmunoglobulin was administered.

The role of protein kinase A in anaerobic energy production during liver storage.

BACKGROUND/AIM: During cold liver storage in University of Wisconsin solution, glycolysis is inhibited by declining intracellular pH and a reduction in glycogen phosphorylase activity. The current study investigated the effects of a histidine-buffered, modified University of Wisconsin solution with cyclic-AMP analogue plus phosphodiesterase inhibitors to optimize both pH and PK A-mediated limits on glycolytic energy production. METHODS: In an isolated rodent-liver system, dioctanoyl-cAMP was supplemented with each phosphodiesterase inhibitor (isobutylmethylxanthine, papaverine, Ro 20-1724, dipyridamole). Once the most efficacious combination was determined, a separate group of livers was cold-stored for 24 h and then reperfused at 37 degrees C to examine regeneration of high energy adenylates. RESULTS: Lactate accumulation in the histidine-lactobionate-raffinose group was 8.7 micromol/g; net increases were greater with all four phosphodiesterase inhibitors with dioctanoyl-cAMP; dipyridamole resulted in a maximum increase of 16.7 micromol/g. ATP was consistently higher in all treatment groups with phosphodiesterase inhibitors throughout 24 h; even after 10-24 h, levels with dipyridamole-treatment were 250-280% higher than with University of Wisconsin (p<0.05). Assessment of glycogen phosphorylase activity in the dipyridamole-treatment group indicated that increased glycolytic activity over the first 4 h was a direct consequence of elevated enzyme levels. However, between 4-10 h, phosphofructokinase underwent a phosphorylation, leading to an inhibition at this point in glycolysis. Upon reperfusion, the higher ATP/ADP and ADP/ AMP ratios found with phosphodiesterase inhibitor treatment suggested that adenylate regeneration was superior with dipyridamole+dioctanoyl-cAMP. CONCLUSION: Dipyridamole plus dioctanoyl-cAMP treatment achieved increased glycogenolysis throughout 24 h storage by maintaining glycogen phosphorylase in a phosphorylated (active) state; however, a PK A-mediated phosphorylation (inhibition) of phosphofructokinase resulted in decreased glycolytic ATP production between 4-10 h.