Short-wavelength free-electron laser sources and science: a review.

This review is focused on free-electron lasers (FELs) in the hard to soft x-ray regime. The aim is to provide newcomers to the area with insights into: the basic physics of FELs, the qualities of the radiation they produce, the challenges of transmitting that radiation to end users and the diversity of current scientific applications. Initial consideration is given to FEL theory in order to provide the foundation for discussion of FEL output properties and the technical challenges of short-wavelength FELs. This is followed by an overview of existing x-ray FEL facilities, future facilities and FEL frontiers. To provide a context for information in the above sections, a detailed comparison of the photon pulse characteristics of FEL sources with those of other sources of high brightness x-rays is made. A brief summary of FEL beamline design and photon diagnostics then precedes an overview of FEL scientific applications. Recent highlights are covered in sections on structural biology, atomic and molecular physics, photochemistry, non-linear spectroscopy, shock physics, solid density plasmas. A short industrial perspective is also included to emphasise potential in this area.

X-ray spectroscopic study of solvent effects on the ferrous and ferric hexacyanide anions.

We present an Fe Kα resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS) and X-ray emission (XES) study of ferrous and ferric hexacyanide dissolved in water and ethylene glycol. We observe that transitions below the absorption edge show that the solvent has a distinct effect on the valence electronic structure. In addition, both the RIXS and XES spectra show a stabilization of the 2p levels when dissolved in water. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we propose that this effect arises from the hydrogen-bonding interactions between the complex and nearby solvent molecules. This withdraws electron density from the ligands, stabilizing the complex but also causing a slight increase in π-backbonding.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy of ground and excited rhenium-carbonyl-diimine complexes: evidence for a two-center electron transfer.

Steady-state and picosecond time-resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy is used to study the ground and lowest triplet states of [ReX(CO)(3)(bpy)](n+), X = Etpy (n = 1), Cl, or Br (n = 0). We demonstrate that the transient spectra at both the Re L(3)- and Br K-edges show the emergence of a pre-edge feature, absent in the ground-state spectrum, which is associated with the electron hole created in the highest occupied molecular orbital following photoexcitation. Importantly, these features have the same dynamics, confirming previous predictions that the low-lying excited states of these complexes involve a two-center charge transfer from both the Re and the ligand, X. We also demonstrate that the DFT optimized ground and excited structures allow us to reproduce the experimental XANES and EXAFS spectra. The ground-state structural refinement shows that the Br atom contributes very little to the latter, whereas the Re-C-O scattering paths are dominant due to the so-called focusing effect. For the excited-state spectrum, the Re-X bond undergoes one of the largest changes but still remains a weak contribution to the photoinduced changes of the EXAFS spectrum.

Solvent-induced luminescence quenching: static and time-resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy of a copper(I) phenanthroline complex.

We present a static and picosecond X-ray absorption study at the Cu K-edge of bis(2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline)copper(I) ([Cu(dmp)2](+); dmp = 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline) dissolved in acetonitrile and dichloromethane. The steady-state photoluminescence spectra in dichloromethane and acetonitrile are also presented and show a shift to longer wavelengths for the latter, which points to a stronger stabilization of the excited complex. The fine structure features of the static and transient X-ray spectra allow an unambiguous assignment of the electronic and geometric structure of the molecule in both its ground and excited (3)MLCT states. Importantly, the transient spectra are remarkably similar for both solvents, and the spectral changes can be rationalized using the optimized ground- and excited-state structures of the complex. The proposed assignment of the lifetime shortening of the excited state in donor solvents (acetonitrile) to a metal-centered exciplex is not corroborated here. Molecular dynamics simulations confirm the lack of complexation; however, in both solvents the molecules come close to the metal but undergo rapid exchange with the bulk. The shortening of the lifetime of the title complex and nine additional related complexes can be rationalized by the decrease in the (3)MLCT energy. Deviations from this trend may be explained by means of the effects of the dihedral angle between the ligand planes, the solvent, and the (3)MLCT-(1)MLCT energy gap.

A wavelet analysis for the X-ray absorption spectra of molecules.

We present a Wavelet transform analysis for the X-ray absorption spectra of molecules. In contrast to the traditionally used Fourier transform approach, this analysis yields a 2D correlation plot in both R- and k-space. As a consequence, it is possible to distinguish between different scattering pathways at the same distance from the absorbing atom and between the contributions of single and multiple scattering events, making an unambiguous assignment of the fine structure oscillations for complex systems possible. We apply this to two previously studied transition metal complexes, namely iron hexacyanide in both its ferric and ferrous form, and a rhenium diimine complex, [ReX(CO)(3)(bpy)], where X = Br, Cl, or ethyl pyridine (Etpy). Our results demonstrate the potential advantages of using this approach and they highlight the importance of multiple scattering, and specifically the focusing phenomenon to the extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectra of these complexes. We also shed light on the low sensitivity of the EXAFS spectrum to the Re-X scattering pathway.

Structural and magnetic dynamics of a laser induced phase transition in FeRh.

We use time-resolved x-ray diffraction and magneto-optical Kerr effect to study the laser-induced antiferromagnetic to ferromagnetic phase transition in FeRh. The structural response is given by the nucleation of independent ferromagnetic domains (τ(1)~30 ps). This is significantly faster than the magnetic response (τ(2)~60 ps) given by the subsequent domain realignment. X-ray diffraction shows that the two phases coexist on short time scales and that the phase transition is limited by the speed of sound. A nucleation model describing both the structural and magnetic dynamics is presented.

Full reconstruction of a crystal unit cell structure during coherent femtosecond motion.

We present a complete characterization of the unit cell dynamics of a laser-excited tellurium crystal using femtosecond x-ray diffraction. The analysis offers a quantitative measure of the unit cell dynamics without making any assumptions on the symmetry of the excited-state motion. The results show a large-amplitude coherently excited A(1) mode quantitatively consistent with the predictions of a density functional theory model.

Ultrafast structural phase transition driven by photoinduced melting of charge and orbital order.

We use femtosecond x-ray diffraction to probe directly the structural dynamics of a charge ordered and orbitally ordered thin film of La0.42Ca0.58MnO3 initiated by an ultrafast optical pulse. At low excitation fluences we observe the displacive excitation of a coherent optical A(g) phonon. Under high excitation conditions we observe a complete phase transition within 1 ps via the disappearance of a superlattice reflection. The initial step of the phase transition occurs on a time scale significantly faster than the 200 fs time resolution of our experiment.

Femtosecond phase-transition in hard x-ray excited bismuth.

The evolution of bismuth crystal structure upon excitation of its A1g phonon has been intensely studied with short pulse optical lasers. Here we present the first-time observation of a hard x-ray induced ultrafast phase transition in a bismuth single crystal at high intensities (~1014 W/cm2). The lattice evolution was followed using a recently demonstrated x-ray single-shot probing setup. The time evolution of the (111) Bragg peak intensity showed strong dependence on the excitation fluence. After exposure to a sufficiently intense x-ray pulse, the peak intensity dropped to zero within 300 fs, i.e. faster than one oscillation period of the A1g mode at room temperature. Our analysis indicates a nonthermal origin of a lattice disordering process, and excludes interpretations based on electron-ion equilibration process, or on thermodynamic heating process leading to plasma formation.

Travelling to China for the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games.

The Beijing Olympics will be the world's premier sporting event in 2008. Countries should begin planning for appropriate support for their Olympic athletes. Experienced medical staff should be appointed early and become familiar with the major medical or injury concerns of athletes and officials. Teams should assemble a comprehensive medical kit. Appropriate medical advice can ensure that athletes will arrive in Beijing in optimal condition. Medical issues particularly relevant to competitors at the Beijing Olympics include heat and humidity, waterborne diseases and air pollution. However, the air pollution probably represents less of a threat than previous media reports would indicate. The Olympic village and venues can be thought of as small enclaves located within a rapidly developing country.

Beating jet lag.

Jet lag is often cited as a cause of poor sporting performance. We report on the case of a rugby league player who flew 20,000 km and 12 time zones, then repeated the feat a few days later, prior to playing with distinction in an important final match in an international series.

Fifth-order Raman spectroscopy of liquid benzene: experiment and theory.

The heterodyned fifth-order Raman response of liquid benzene has been measured and characterized by exploiting the passive-phase stabilization of diffractive optics. This result builds on our previous work with liquid carbon disulfide and extends the spectroscopy to a new liquid for the first time. The all-parallel and Dutch Cross polarization tensor elements are presented for both the experimental results and a finite-field molecular dynamics simulation. The overall response characteristics are similar to those of liquid carbon disulfide: a complete lack of signal along the pump delay, an elongated signal along the probe delay, and a short-lived signal along the time diagonal. Of particular interest is the change in phase between the nuclear and electronic response along the probe delay and diagonal which is not seen in CS2. Good agreement is achieved between the experiment and the finite-field molecular dynamics simulation. The measurement of the low-frequency Raman two-time delay correlation function indicates the intermolecular modes of liquid benzene to be primarily homogeneously broadened and that the liquid loses its nuclear rephasing ability within 300 fs. This rapid loss of nuclear correlations indicates a lack of modal character in the low-frequency motions of liquid benzene. This result is a validation of the general nature of the technique and represents an important step forward with respect to the use of nonlinear spectroscopy to directly access information on the anharmonic motions of liquids.

Following the dynamics of matter with femtosecond precision using the X-ray streaking method.

X-ray Free Electron Lasers (FELs) can produce extremely intense and very short pulses, down to below 10 femtoseconds (fs). Among the key applications are ultrafast time-resolved studies of dynamics of matter by observing responses to fast excitation pulses in a pump-probe manner. Detectors with sufficient time resolution for observing these processes are not available. Therefore, such experiments typically measure a sample's full dynamics by repeating multiple pump-probe cycles at different delay times. This conventional method assumes that the sample returns to an identical or very similar state after each cycle. Here we describe a novel approach that can provide a time trace of responses following a single excitation pulse, jitter-free, with fs timing precision. We demonstrate, in an X-ray diffraction experiment, how it can be applied to the investigation of ultrafast irreversible processes.

Rhabdomyolysis, myoglobinuria and exercise.

Muscle membrane injury is a predictable consequence of extreme exertion. The risk is compounded if an untrained individual performs eccentric exercise in a hot environment, or there is any preceding infectious disease, drug ingestion or an underlying metabolic disorder. Once the integrity of the membrane is breached, a constellation of physiological changes follows. Cell contents leak out and extracellular components leak in. Muscle pain and weakness ensue. Myoglobin is but one substance that is liberated into the bloodstream. When dehydration, hypovolaemia and acidosis are added to the myoglobin load, the kidney may respond by ceasing its excretory and metabolic functions. This is the most serious consequence of rhabdomyolysis, and may be life threatening. The clinical setting, in combination with laboratory features of a grossly elevated creatine kinase, orthotoluidine positive urine and granular casts provides a rapid and accurate means of diagnosis in most cases. Management principles include aggressive fluid replacement, early use of cation exchange resins and dialysis for electrolyte control, plus fasciotomy for relief of compartment syndrome and limb preservation. Following this protocol, the prognosis is excellent. Prior conditioning clearly reduces the incidence of exercise-related muscle injury. Future research should concentrate on the rate at which training loads can be safely increased.

Photooxidation and photoaquation of iron hexacyanide in aqueous solution: A picosecond X-ray absorption study.

We present a picosecond Fe K-edge absorption study of photoexcited ferrous and ferric hexacyanide in water under 355 and 266 nm excitation. Following 355 nm excitation, the transient spectra for the ferrous and ferric complexes exhibit a red shift of the edge reflecting an increased electron density at the Fe atom. For the former, an enhanced pre-edge transition is also observed. These observations are attributed to the aquated [Fe(CN)5OH2](3-) species, based on quantum chemical calculations which also provide structural parameters. Upon 266 nm excitation of the ferric complex, a transient reminiscent of the aquated species is observed (appearance of a pre-edge feature and red shift of the edge) but it is different from that obtained under 355 nm excitation. This points to a new reaction channel occurring through an intermediate state lying between these two excitation energies. Finally, 266 nm excitation of the ferrous species is dominated by the photooxidation channel with formation of the ferric complex as main photoproduct. However, we observe an additional minor photoproduct, which is identical to the 266 nm generated photoproduct of the ferric species, suggesting that under our experimental conditions, the pump pulse photooxidises the ferrous complex and re-excites the primary ferric photoproduct.

Communication: The electronic structure of matter probed with a single femtosecond hard x-ray pulse.

Physical, biological, and chemical transformations are initiated by changes in the electronic configuration of the species involved. These electronic changes occur on the timescales of attoseconds (10(-18) s) to femtoseconds (10(-15) s) and drive all subsequent electronic reorganization as the system moves to a new equilibrium or quasi-equilibrium state. The ability to detect the dynamics of these electronic changes is crucial for understanding the potential energy surfaces upon which chemical and biological reactions take place. Here, we report on the determination of the electronic structure of matter using a single self-seeded femtosecond x-ray pulse from the Linac Coherent Light Source hard x-ray free electron laser. By measuring the high energy resolution off-resonant spectrum (HEROS), we were able to obtain information about the electronic density of states with a single femtosecond x-ray pulse. We show that the unoccupied electronic states of the scattering atom may be determined on a shot-to-shot basis and that the measured spectral shape is independent of the large intensity fluctuations of the incoming x-ray beam. Moreover, we demonstrate the chemical sensitivity and single-shot capability and limitations of HEROS, which enables the technique to track the electronic structural dynamics in matter on femtosecond time scales, making it an ideal probe technique for time-resolved X-ray experiments.

Non-equilibrium phonon dynamics studied by grazing-incidence femtosecond X-ray crystallography.

The timescales for structural changes in a single crystal of bismuth after excitation with an intense near-infrared laser pulse are studied with femtosecond pump-probe X-ray diffraction. Changes in the intensity and reciprocal-lattice vector of several reflections give quantitative information on the structure factor and lattice strain as a function of time, with a resolution of 200 fs. The results indicate that the majority of excess carrier energy that remains near the surface is transferred to vibrational modes on a timescale of about 10 ps, and that the resultant increase in the variance of the atomic positions at these times is consistent with the overall magnitude of lattice strain that develops.

Directly observing squeezed phonon states with femtosecond x-ray diffraction.

Squeezed states are quantum states of a harmonic oscillator in which the variance of two conjugate variables each oscillate out of phase. Ultrafast optical excitation of crystals can create squeezed phonon states, where the variance of the atomic displacements oscillates due to a sudden change in the interatomic bonding strength. With femtosecond x-ray diffraction we measure squeezing oscillations in bismuth and conclude that they are consistent with a model in which electronic excitation softens all phonon modes by a constant scaling factor.

Nanoscale depth-resolved coherent femtosecond motion in laser-excited bismuth.

We employ grazing-incidence femtosecond x-ray diffraction to characterize the coherent, femtosecond laser-induced lattice motion of a bismuth crystal as a function of depth from the surface with a temporal resolution of 193+/-8 fs. The data show direct consequences on the lattice motion from carrier diffusion and electron-hole interaction, allowing us to estimate an effective diffusion rate of D=2.3+/-0.3 cm(2)/s for the highly excited carriers and an electron-hole interaction time of 260+/-20 fs.

Sports medicine in New Zealand.

Sports medicine in New Zealand is characterized by a team approach. Experienced professionals work together to the benefit of athletes, be they elite performers or those in sport for purely recreational purposes. A no-fault accident compensation scheme is used to provide speedy access to treatment services for those injured in sport and also for advice on accident prevention. Recent initiatives include a task force on drugs in sport and the creation of regional sports foundations. Sports medical education is a prominent part of the New Zealand scene.