Brain-specific glycosylation enzyme GnT-IX maintains levels of protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor PTPRZ, thereby mediating glioma growth.

Gliomas are the most prevalent primary tumor of the central nervous system. Despite advances in imaging technologies, neurosurgical techniques, and radiotherapy, a cure for high-grade glioma remains elusive. Several groups have reported that protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type Z (PTPRZ) is highly expressed in glioblastoma, and that targeting PTPRZ attenuates tumor growth in mice. PTPRZ is modified with diverse glycan, including the PTPRZ-unique human natural killer-1 capped O-mannosyl core M2 glycans. However, the regulation and function of these unique glycans are unclear. Using CRISPR genome-editing technology, we first demonstrated that disruption of the PTPRZ gene in human glioma LN-229 cells resulted in profoundly reduced tumor growth in xenografted mice, confirming the potential of PTPRZ as a therapeutic target for glioma. Furthermore, multiple glycan analyses revealed that PTPRZ derived from glioma patients and from xenografted glioma expressed abundant levels of human natural killer-1-capped O-Man glycans via extrinsic signals. Finally, since deficiency of O-Man core M2 branching enzyme N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase IX (GnT-IX) was reported to reduce PTPRZ protein levels, we disrupted the GnT-IX gene in LN-229 cells and found a significant reduction of glioma growth both in vitro and in the xenograft model. These results suggest that the PTPR glycosylation enzyme GnT-IX may represent a promising therapeutic target for glioma.

Endothelial expression of human amyloid precursor protein leads to amyloid ß in the blood and induces cerebral amyloid angiopathy in knock-in mice.

The deposition of amyloid ß (Aß) in blood vessels of the brain, known as cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), is observed in most patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Compared with the pathology of CAA in humans, the pathology in most mouse models of AD is not as evident, making it difficult to examine the contribution of CAA to the pathogenesis of AD. On the basis of biochemical analyses that showed blood levels of soluble amyloid precursor protein (APP) in rats and mice were markedly lower than those measured in human samples, we hypothesized that endothelial APP expression would be markedly lower in rodents and subsequently generated mice that specifically express human WT APP (APP770) in endothelial cells (ECs). The resulting EC-APP770+ mice exhibited increased levels of serum Aß and soluble APP, indicating that endothelial APP makes a critical contribution to blood Aß levels. Even though aged EC-APP770+ mice did not exhibit Aß deposition in the cortical blood vessels, crossing these animals with APP knock-in mice (AppNL-F/NL-F) led to an expanded CAA pathology, as evidenced by increased amounts of amyloid accumulated in the cortical blood vessels. These results highlight an overlooked interplay between neuronal and endothelial APP in brain vascular Aß deposition. We propose that these EC-APP770+:AppNL-F/NL-F mice may be useful to study the basic molecular mechanisms behind the possible breakdown of the blood-brain barrier upon administration of anti-Aß antibodies.

Transcriptional regulation of genes bearing intronic heterochromatin in the rice genome.

Intronic regions of eukaryotic genomes accumulate many Transposable Elements (TEs). Intronic TEs often trigger the formation of transcriptionally repressive heterochromatin, even within transcription-permissive chromatin environments. Although TE-bearing introns are widely observed in eukaryotic genomes, their epigenetic states, impacts on gene regulation and function, and their contributions to genetic diversity and evolution, remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the genome-wide distribution of intronic TEs and their epigenetic states in the Oryza sativa genome, where TEs comprise 35% of the genome. We found that over 10% of rice genes contain intronic heterochromatin, most of which are associated with TEs and repetitive sequences. These heterochromatic introns are longer and highly enriched in promoter-proximal positions. On the other hand, introns also accumulate hypomethylated short TEs. Genes with heterochromatic introns are implicated in various biological functions. Transcription of genes bearing intronic heterochromatin is regulated by an epigenetic mechanism involving the conserved factor OsIBM2, mutation of which results in severe developmental and reproductive defects. Furthermore, we found that heterochromatic introns evolve rapidly compared to non-heterochromatic introns. Our study demonstrates that heterochromatin is a common epigenetic feature associated with actively transcribed genes in the rice genome.

Transcriptomes of Giant Sea Anemones from Okinawa as a Tool for Understanding Their Phylogeny and Symbiotic Relationships with Anemonefish.

The relationship between anemonefish and sea anemones is one of the most emblematic examples of mutualistic symbiosis in coral reefs. Although this is a textbook example, the major aspects of this symbiosis are still not fully understood in mechanistic terms. Moreover, since studies of this relationship have usually been focused on anemonefish, much less is known about giant sea anemones, their similarities, their phylogenetic relationships, and their differences at the molecular level. Since both partners of the symbiotic relationship are important, we decided to explore this well-known phenomenon from the perspective of giant sea anemones. Here, we report reference transcriptomes for all seven species of giant sea anemones that inhabit fringing reefs of Okinawa (Japan) and serve as hosts for six species of local anemonefish. Transcriptomes were used to investigate their phylogenetic relations, genetic differences and repertoires of nematocyte-specific proteins. Our data support the presence of three distinct groups corresponding to three genera: Entacmaea, Heteractis, and Stichodactyla. The basal position among the three groups belongs to Entacmaea, which was the first to diverge from a common ancestor. While the magnitude of genetic difference between the representatives of Entacmaea and Stichodactyla is large, intra-specific variation within Stichodactyla is much smaller and seems to result from recent speciation events. Our data reconfirms that Heteractis magnifica belongs to the genus Stichodactyla, despite an overall morphological similarity with representatives of the genus Heteractis. The availability of reference transcriptomes will facilitate further research into the fascinating relationship between sea anemones and anemonefish.

Amyloid precursor protein 770 is specifically expressed and released from platelets.

Platelets not only play an essential role in hemostasis after vascular injury but are also involved in the development of coronary artery disease (CAD) and cerebrovascular lesions. Patients with CAD and cerebral ischemia are recommended to undergo antiplatelet therapy, but they have an increased incidence of major bleeding complications. Both assessment of the platelet activation status and response to antiplatelet therapy in each patient are highly desired. ß-Amyloid precursor protein (APP) 770 is expressed in vascular endothelial cells, and its extracellular region, a soluble form of APP770 (sAPP770, also called nexin-2), is proteolytically cleaved for shedding. Abundant sAPP770 is also released from activated platelets. In this study, we used peripheral blood samples from patients with CAD and control subjects and evaluated sAPP770 as a specific biomarker for platelet activation. First, the plasma levels of sAPP770 correlated well with those of the soluble form CD40 ligand (CD40L), an established biomarker for platelet activation. Additionally, flow cytometry analysis using peripheral blood cells showed that CD40L expression is up-regulated in activated T cells, whereas APP770 expression is negligible in all blood cell types except platelets. Following stimulation with collagen or ADP, aggregating platelets immediately released sAPP770. Finally, patients with dual antiplatelet therapy showed significantly lower levels of plasma sAPP770 than those with no therapy. Taken together, our data show that plasma sAPP770 could be a promising biomarker for platelet activation.

Prospects and Potential for Chimerism Analysis after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation.

Chimerism analysis after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation serves to confirm engraftment, indicate relapse of hematologic malignancy, and attribute graft failure to either immune rejection or poor graft function. Short tandem repeat PCR (STR-PCR) is the prevailing method, followed by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), with detection limits of 1-5% and 0.1%, respectively. Chimerism assays using digital PCR or next-generation sequencing, both of which are more sensitive than STR-PCR, are increasingly used. Stable mixed chimerism is usually not associated with poor outcomes in non-malignant diseases, but recipient chimerism may foretell relapse of hematologic malignancies, so higher detection sensitivity may be beneficial in such cases. Thus, the need for and the type of intervention, e.g., immunosuppression regimen, donor lymphocyte infusion, and/or salvage second transplantation, should be guided by donor chimerism in the context of the feature and/or residual malignant cells of the disease to be treated.

Anemonefish are better taxonomists than humans.

The symbiosis between giant sea anemones, algae of the family Symbiodiniaceae, and anemonefish is an iconic example of a mutualistic trio1,2. Molecular analyses have shown that giant sea anemones hosting anemonefish belong to three clades: Entacmaea, Stichodactyla, and Heteractis3,4,5 (Figure 1A). Associations among 28 species of anemonefish and 10 species of giant sea anemone hosts are complex. Some fish species are highly specialized to only one anemone species (e.g., Amphiprion frenatus with Entacmaea quadricolor), whereas others are more generalist (e.g., Amphiprion clarkii)1,2,6. Reasons for host preferences are obscured, among other things, by the lack of resolution in the giant sea anemone phylogeny. Here, we generated a transcriptomic dataset from 55 sea anemones collected from southern Japan to reconstruct these phylogenetic relationships. We observed that the bubble-tip sea anemone E. quadricolor, currently considered a single species, can be separated into at least four cryptic lineages (A-D). Surprisingly, these lineages can be precisely distinguished by observing their association with anemonefish: A. frenatus only associates with lineage D, whereas A. clarkii lives in the other three lineages.

The transcriptional landscape underlying larval development and metamorphosis in the Malabar grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus).

Most teleost fishes exhibit a biphasic life history with a larval oceanic phase that is transformed into morphologically and physiologically different demersal, benthic, or pelagic juveniles. This process of transformation is characterized by a myriad of hormone-induced changes, during the often abrupt transition between larval and juvenile phases called metamorphosis. Thyroid hormones (TH) are known to be instrumental in triggering and coordinating this transformation but other hormonal systems such as corticoids, might be also involved as it is the case in amphibians. In order to investigate the potential involvement of these two hormonal pathways in marine fish post-embryonic development, we used the Malabar grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus) as a model system. We assembled a chromosome-scale genome sequence and conducted a transcriptomic analysis of nine larval developmental stages. We studied the expression patterns of genes involved in TH and corticoid pathways, as well as four biological processes known to be regulated by TH in other teleost species: ossification, pigmentation, visual perception, and metabolism. Surprisingly, we observed an activation of many of the same pathways involved in metamorphosis also at an early stage of the larval development, suggesting an additional implication of these pathways in the formation of early larval features. Overall, our data brings new evidence to the controversial interplay between corticoids and thyroid hormones during metamorphosis as well as, surprisingly, during the early larval development. Further experiments will be needed to investigate the precise role of both pathways during these two distinct periods and whether an early activation of both corticoid and TH pathways occurs in other teleost species.

The chromosome-scale genome assembly of the yellowtail clownfish Amphiprion clarkii provides insights into the melanic pigmentation of anemonefish.

Anemonefish are an emerging group of model organisms for studying genetic, ecological, evolutionary, and developmental traits of coral reef fish. The yellowtail clownfish Amphiprion clarkii possesses species-specific characteristics such as inter-species co-habitation, high intra-species color variation, no anemone specificity, and a broad geographic distribution, that can increase our understanding of anemonefish evolutionary history, behavioral strategies, fish-anemone symbiosis, and color pattern evolution. Despite its position as an emerging model species, the genome of A. clarkii is yet to be published. Using PacBio long-read sequencing and Hi-C chromatin capture technology, we generated a high-quality chromosome-scale genome assembly initially comprised of 1,840 contigs with an N50 of 1,203,211 bp. These contigs were successfully anchored into 24 chromosomes of 843,582,782 bp and annotated with 25,050 protein-coding genes encompassing 97.0% of conserved actinopterygian genes, making the quality and completeness of this genome the highest among all published anemonefish genomes to date. Transcriptomic analysis identified tissue-specific gene expression patterns, with the brain and optic lobe having the largest number of expressed genes. Further analyses revealed higher copy numbers of erbb3b (a gene involved in melanocyte development) in A. clarkii compared with other anemonefish, thus suggesting a possible link between erbb3b and the natural melanism polymorphism observed in A. clarkii. The publication of this high-quality genome, along with A. clarkii's many unique traits, position this species as an ideal model organism for addressing scientific questions across a range of disciplines.

The multi-level regulation of clownfish metamorphosis by thyroid hormones.

Most marine organisms have a biphasic life cycle during which pelagic larvae transform into radically different juveniles. In vertebrates, the role of thyroid hormones (THs) in triggering this transition is well known, but how the morphological and physiological changes are integrated in a coherent way with the ecological transition remains poorly explored. To gain insight into this question, we performed an integrated analysis of metamorphosis of a marine teleost, the false clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris). We show how THs coordinate a change in color vision as well as a major metabolic shift in energy production, highlighting how it orchestrates this transformation. By manipulating the activity of liver X regulator (LXR), a major regulator of metabolism, we also identify a tight link between metabolic changes and metamorphosis progression. Strikingly, we observed that these regulations are at play in the wild, explaining how hormones coordinate energy needs with available resources during the life cycle.

Myeloproliferative neoplasm-driving Calr frameshift promotes the development of pulmonary hypertension in mice.

Frameshifts in the Calreticulin (CALR) exon 9 provide a recurrent driver mutation of essential thrombocythemia (ET) and primary myelofibrosis among myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). Here, we generated knock-in mice with murine Calr exon 9 mimicking the human CALR mutations, using the CRISPR-Cas9 method. Knock-in mice with del10 [Calrdel10/WT (wild-type) mice] exhibited an ET phenotype with increases of peripheral blood (PB) platelets and leukocytes, and accumulation of megakaryocytes in bone marrow (BM), while those with ins2 (Calrins2/WT mice) showed a slight splenic enlargement. Phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) was upregulated in BM cells of both knock-in mice. In BM transplantation (BMT) recipients from Calrdel10/WT mice, although PB cell counts were not different from those in BMT recipients from CalrWT/WT mice, Calrdel10/WT BM-derived macrophages exhibited elevations of pSTAT3 and Endothelin-1 levels. Strikingly, BMT recipients from Calrdel10/WT mice developed more severe pulmonary hypertension (PH)-which often arises as a comorbidity in patients with MPNs-than BMT recipients from CalrWT/WT mice, with pulmonary arterial remodeling accompanied by an accumulation of donor-derived macrophages in response to chronic hypoxia. In conclusion, our murine model with the frameshifted murine Calr presented an ET phenotype analogous to human MPNs in molecular mechanisms and cardiovascular complications such as PH.

Sex- and tissue-specific expression of P450 aromatase (cyp19a1a) in the yellowtail clownfish, Amphiprion clarkii.

To investigate the role of estrogen in the gonad of yellowtail clownfish Amphiprion clarkii, we isolated cDNA encoding cytochrome P450 aromatase (Cyp19a1a) from the adult ovary. The full-length cDNA of clownfish cyp19a1a is 1928-bp long and encodes 520 amino acids. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed that cyp19a1a was expressed mainly in the ovary of female-phase fish. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemical observations showed that positive signals were restricted to the ovarian follicle of the female-phase fish. In contrast, Cyp19a1a signal was not detected in the ambisexual gonad of the male-phase fish. These findings suggest that Cyp19a1a is involved in oogenesis in the female-phase fish, but not in the ambisexual gonad of male-phase fish.

[Utility of Hybrisep in the diagnosis of blood stream infection].

Hybrisep is an in situ hybridization (ISH) method to detect phagocytosed bacteria in peripheral blood neutrophils and macrophages. We report 10 actual clinical cases tested using Hybrisep with new DNA probes, and the data were compared to the actual blood culture results. A normal Hybrisep strategy employs 5 DNA probes to detect the following bacterial DNA: "SA" probe for S. aureus, "SE" for S. epidermidis, "PA" for P. aeruginosa, "EF" for E. faecalis, and "EK" for E. coli, E. cloacae, and K. pneumoniae. Six newly designed DNA probes were used in this study: "GB" probe for 49 common bacteria, "SP" for S. pneumoniae, "BF" for B. fragilis, "HI" for H. influenzae, "GC" for Candida species, and "CA" for C. albicans. Three cases were positive on ISH, but all their blood cultures were negative. One case showed a positive blood culture, but was negative on ISH. In another 6 cases, both were negative. We postulated that empirical therapy of antibiotics resulted in only positive ISH. Cases only showing a positive outcome on blood culture might be due to a diminished phagocytic function during patients' severe disease conditions. In conclusion, ISH with Hybrisep has clinical advantages such as being able to defect causative pathogens even after the use of antibiotics, and facilitates more rapid identification than routinely performed bacterial cultures only.

Epigenetic regulation of spurious transcription initiation in Arabidopsis.

In plants, epigenetic regulation is critical for silencing transposons and maintaining proper gene expression. However, its impact on the genome-wide transcription initiation landscape remains elusive. By conducting a genome-wide analysis of transcription start sites (TSSs) using cap analysis of gene expression (CAGE) sequencing, we show that thousands of TSSs are exclusively activated in various epigenetic mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana and referred to as cryptic TSSs. Many have not been identified in previous studies, of which up to 65% are contributed by transposons. They possess similar genetic features to regular TSSs and their activation is strongly associated with the ectopic recruitment of RNAPII machinery. The activation of cryptic TSSs significantly alters transcription of nearby TSSs, including those of genes important for development and stress responses. Our study, therefore, sheds light on the role of epigenetic regulation in maintaining proper gene functions in plants by suppressing transcription from cryptic TSSs.

Immunohistochemical evidence for 11beta-hydroxylase (P45011beta) and androgen production in the gonad during sex differentiation and in adults in the protandrous anemonefish Amphiprion clarkii.

To obtain basic information on the endocrine mechanisms underlying sex change in the protandrous anemonefish Amphiprion clarkii, we examined the immunolocalization of the steroidogenic enzyme cytochrome 11beta-hydroxylase (P45011beta), which is involved in 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT) production, and analyzed the ability of gonads to produce steroid hormones throughout the sex differentiation process and at the breeding stage. Immunopositive reactions against P45011beta appeared in sexually undifferentiated gonads at 30 days post hatching (dph). The number of immunopositive cells continued to increase during ovarian differentiation (from 60 to 180 dph) and throughout the formation of ambisexual gonads with both ovarian and testicular tissue until 270 dph. In the male phase, strongly immunopositive cells were observed in the cellular interstices of both testicular and ovarian tissues. P45011beta was localized only in the theca cells enclosing developed oocytes in the female phase. In-vitro 11-KT production in the gonads gradually increased with testicular differentiation (before, during, and after differentiation). Production of 11-KT in the gonads was higher in the male phase than during testicular differentiation or in the female phase. Our results suggest that androgen is involved in testicular differentiation during sex differentiation and spermatogenesis.

Differentiation of ambisexual gonads and immunohistochemical localization of P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme during gonadal sex differentiation in the protandrous anemonefish, Amphiprion clarkii.

To clarify the relationship between steroid hormones and sex differentiation of the protandrous anemonefish Amphiprion clarkii, we histologically examined its gonadal differentiation. From hatching to 30 days post hatching (dph), all of the gonads surveyed were sexually undifferentiated. The gonads of all fish first differentiated into ovaries at 60 dph, and the oocytes gradually developed and increased in number as the ovaries grew up until 183 dph. Some cysts of differentiated spermatogenic germ cells appeared in the ovaries at 214 dph, and ambisexual gonads with both ovarian and testicular tissues formed by 273 dph. Using immunohistochemistry, we then investigated the expression of cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), during gonadal sex differentiation. P450scc-immunopositive reactions first appeared in sexually undifferentiated gonads at 30 dph. Beginning at 60 dph, the number of strongly positive cells increased throughout the differentiation of the ovaries and continued to increase during the testicular differentiation until 210 dph. Immunopositive cells were observed more frequently in ovarian tissue than in testicular tissue in the ambisexual gonads at 270 dph. These results suggest that endogenous steroid hormones are important for the sex differentiation, including the primary sex differentiation and subsequent testicular differentiation, of the anemonefish.

Epigenetic Regulation of Intronic Transgenes in Arabidopsis.

Defense mechanisms of plant genomes can epigenetically inactivate repetitive sequences and exogenous transgenes. Loss of mutant phenotypes in intronic T-DNA insertion lines by interaction with another T-DNA locus, termed T-DNA suppression, has been observed in Arabidopsis thaliana, although the molecular basis of establishment and maintenance of T-DNA suppression is poorly understood. Here we show that maintenance of T-DNA suppression requires heterochromatinisation of T-DNA sequences and the nuclear proteins, INCREASED IN BONSAI METHYLATION 2 (IBM2) and ENHANCED DOWNY MILDEW 2 (EDM2), which prevent ectopic 3' end processing of mRNA in atypically long introns containing T-DNA sequences. Initiation of T-DNA suppression is mediated by the canonical RdDM pathway after hybridisation of two T-DNA strains, accompanied by DNA hypermethylation of T-DNA sequences in the F1 generation. Our results reveal the presence of a genome surveillance mechanism through genome hybridisation that masks repetitive DNAs intruding into transcription units.

Sex change in coral reef fish.

Gonadal differentiation can take many forms in fish, ranging from gonochorism, where individuals directly develop as male or female and finally possess only testis or ovaries at sexual maturation, to hermaphroditism where the same individuals can produce mature male and female gametes at some time in their lives. Hermaphrodite fish are, thus, an excellent model for studying the plasticity of sex determination and differentiation in vertebrates. We have shown that sex steroids play a principal role in sex differentiation and sex change in fish. Our laboratory implements several fish models that undergo sex change from female to male or male to female or in both directions. In this review, we will briefly discuss recent advances in our understanding of the mechanism of sex change in coral reef fish.

Opposite-directional sex change in functional female protandrous anemonefish, Amphiprion clarkii: effect of aromatase inhibitor on the ovarian tissue.

INTRODUCTION: The anemonefish, Amphiprion clarkii, is a protandrous hermaphrodite. Under appropriate social conditions, male fish can become female. Previous studies indicated that estrogens are important regulators of sex change in this fish. However, the mechanism of sexual plasticity in the gonad of this fish is still unknown. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying the sexual plasticity in the ovary of female anemonefish, an aromatase inhibitor (AI, 500 µg/g diet) was administered to the functional female fish for 80 days. RESULTS: The levels of estradiol-17ß (E2) in the fish treated with AI were significantly lower than those in the control group. Three out of five fish had ambisexual gonads with active spermatogenic germ cells in the ovarian tissue. However, female fish in the AI-treated group prior to treatment and those in the control group displayed no testicular characteristics in their developed ovaries. This result strongly suggests that germ cells with bipotentiality or spermatogonial cells remain in the functional ovaries of anemonefish following sex change from functional males to functional females. There is a possibility that estrogen depletion due to AI treatment might have caused the opposite-directional sex change from functional female to male in the anemonefish. CONCLUSIONS: The anemonefish keeps their high sexual bipotential in the ovary after sex change.

Detection of monoclonal integration of bovine leukemia virus proviral DNA as a malignant marker in two enzootic bovine leukosis cases with difficult clinical diagnosis.

Monoclonal integration of bovine leukemia virus (BLV) proviral DNA into bovine genomes was detected in peripheral blood from two clinical cases of enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL) without enlargement of superficial lymph nodes. A BLV-specific probe hybridized with 1 to 3 EcoRI and HindIII fragments in these 2 atypical EBL cattle by Southern blotting and hybridization, as well as in 3 typical EBL cattle. The probe also hybridized to a large number of EcoRI and HindIII fragments in 5 cattle with persistent leukosis. These results suggest that the detection of monoclonal integration of BLV provirus into the host genome may serve as a marker of monoclonal proliferation and malignancy in difficult to diagnose EBL cattle.