Antimicrobial use, residues and resistance in fish production in Africa: systematic review and meta-analysis.

In low- and middle-income countries, data on antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in aquaculture are scarce. Therefore, summarizing documented data on AMU, antimicrobial residue (AR), and AMR in aquaculture in Africa is key to understanding the risk to public health. Google Scholar, PubMed, African Journals online, and Medline were searched for articles published in English and French following the PRISMA guidelines. A structured search string was used with strict inclusion and exclusion criteria to retrieve and screen the articles. The pooled prevalence and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for each pathogen-antimicrobial pair using random effects models. Among the 113 full-text articles reviewed, 41 met the eligibility criteria. The majority of the articles reported AMR (35; 85.4%), while a few were on AMU (3; 7.3%) and AR (3; 7.3%) in fish. The articles originated from West Africa (23; 56.1%), North Africa (8; 19.7%), and East Africa (7; 17.1%). Concerning the antimicrobial agents used in fish farming, tetracycline was the most common antimicrobial class used, which justified the high prevalence of residues (up to 56.7%) observed in fish. For AMR, a total of 69 antimicrobial agents were tested against 24 types of bacteria isolated. Bacteria were resistant to all classes of antimicrobial agents and exhibited high levels of multidrug resistance. Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus spp. were reported in 16, 10, and 8 studies, respectively, with multidrug resistance rates of 43.1% [95% CI (32.0-55.0)], 40.3% [95% CI (24.1-58.1)] and 31.3% [95% CI (17.5-49.4)], respectively. This review highlights the high multidrug resistance rate of bacteria from aquaculture to commonly used antimicrobial agents, such as tetracycline, ampicillin, cotrimoxazole, gentamicin, and amoxicillin, in Africa. These findings also highlighted the lack of data on AMU and residue in the aquaculture sector, and additional efforts should be made to fill these gaps and mitigate the burden of AMR on public health in Africa.

African swine fever in the northern regions of Cameroon: seroprevalence survey and spatiotemporal analysis of outbreaks from 2010 to 2017.

The present study was carried out to establish the spatiotemporal distribution of ASF between 2010 and 2017 in the Adamawa, North, and Far North regions of Cameroon. A retrospective study with data relating to the northern regions from epidemiological reports from target organizations in Cameroon was used to analyze outbreaks of ASF from 2010 to 2016. A prospective study consisting of risk factor analysis and serological investigation of anti-ASF antibodies and ASF RT-PCR antigen detection test in pig farms in the study regions with clinical suspicion of ASF was carried out in 2017. During the period 2010 to 2016, a total of 53 ASF outbreaks were reported and confirmed in the three northern regions of Cameroon and involved 4905 pigs (2232 deaths and 2673 slaughtered for sanitary measures). The seroprevalence for the 2017 serology survey was 5.23% (95% CI [3.57-6.89]) at the individual and 10.81% (95% CI [6.34-15.28]) at herd level. Region, management of farms system, on-farm slaughter by the owner (OR = 4.60; 95% CI [0.34-46.20]; p = 0.014), and selling of animals to community or to butchers (OR = 4.82; 95% CI [0.51-62.15]; p = 0.010) had significant effect on individual level seropositivity of ASF. The viral antigen was not detected by PCR. This study showed that ASF cases have decreased significantly in the northern regions of Cameroon following the epizootic 2010 outbreaks. The findings predict a better future for the pork farming in the regions through the enforcement of strategic measures.

Veterinary pharmacovigilance in sub-Sahara Africa context: a pilot study of adverse reactions to veterinary medicine in Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: Sub-Saharan African market is highly affected by counterfeit veterinary drugs. Though these counterfeit and non-compliance of drugs can induce adverse effects during their utilization, there is no monitoring system of veterinary medicines. The present pilot study was carried out in Cameroon to identify and describe suspected cases of adverse reactions to veterinary drugs in animals and / or humans as well as inefficacy of veterinary drugs. The methodology involved a descriptive cross-sectional survey of 67 actors in the veterinary medicine sector in Cameroon. RESULTS: A total of 74/120 (62%) cases of suspected adverse effects and or lack of efficacy of veterinary drugs in animals and 46 (38%) cases of adverse reactions in humans were identified. Antiparasitics were the most incriminated therapeutic class in animals (61%) and human (56%). Adverse reactions were reported in dogs (44%) and poultry (24%) while drug inefficacy was most observed in poultry (47%). According to animal health professionals, levamisole (24%) and ivermectin (16%) were identified to be responsible for the adverse effects and that the highest level of inefficacy was most frequently reported for oxytetracycline (29%). The main adverse reactions were systemic (22%), gastrointestinal (20%) and neurological (13%) disorders. CONCLUSION: The results of this study showed that misuse and circulation of poor quality as well as lack of efficacy of veterinary drugs is very common in Cameroon. Adverse reactions were observed in animals and humans. Therefore, the establishment of a national veterinary pharmacovigilance system based on solid legal bases is essential for a continuous assessment of the risks-benefits effects of veterinary drugs marketed in Cameroon.

Antimicrobial resistance from a one health perspective in Cameroon: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is widely acknowledged as a global health problem, yet in many parts of the world its magnitude is not well elucidated. A baseline assessment of the AMR prevalence is a priority for implementation of laboratory-based AMR surveillance This review, focused on a One health approach, aimed at describing the current status of AMR in Cameroon. METHODS: PubMed, Google Scholar and African Journals Online databases were searched for articles published in English and French in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. Retrieval and screening of article was done using a structured search string with strict inclusion/exclusion criteria. Free-text and grey literature were obtained by contacting the authors directly. The pooled prevalence and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for each pathogen-antibiotic pairs using random-effects models. RESULT: Amongst 97 full-text articles reviewed, 66 met the eligibility criteria. The studies originated from the Centre (24; 36.4%), South-West (16; 24.2%), West (13; 19.7%), Littoral (9; 13.6%) and other (4; 6.1%) regions of Cameroon. These studies reported AMR in human (45; 68.2%), animals (9; 13.6%) and the environment (12; 18.2%). Overall, 19 species of bacteria were tested against 48 antibiotics. These organisms were resistant to all classes of antibiotics and showed high levels of multidrug resistance. Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus spp were reported in 23, 19 and 18 of the human studies and revealed multidrug resistance (MDR) rates of 47.1% [95% CI (37.3-57.2%)], 51.0% [95% CI (42.0-59.9)] and 45.2% [95% CI (38.0-54.7)], respectively. Salmonella spp was reported in 6 of the animal studies and showed a MDR rate of 46.2% [95% CI (39.2-53.5%)] while Staphylococcus spp in 8 of environment studies showed MDR rate of 67.1% [95% CI (55.2-77.2%)]. CONCLUSION: This review shows that resistance to commonly prescribed antibiotics in Cameroon is high. The findings emphasize the urgent need to address gaps in the standardization of AMR diagnostics, reporting and use of available information to optimize treatment guidelines for the arsenal of antibiotics. Effective AMR surveillance through continued data sharing, large-scale collaboration, and coordination of all stakeholders is essential to understand and manage the AMR national burden.

Unveiling the landscape of resistance against high priority critically important antimicrobials in food-producing animals across Africa: A scoping review.

The rapid population growth in Africa is associated with an increasing demand for livestock products which in turn can lead to antimicrobial use. Antimicrobial usage in animals contributes to the emergence and selection of resistant bacteria which constitutes a serious public health threat. This study aims to review and summarize the available information on highest priority critically important antimicrobials (HPCIAs) resistance in livestock production in Africa. This work will help to inform future policies for controlling antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the food production chain. A scoping review was conducted according to the Cochrane handbook and following PRISMA 2020 guidelines for reporting. Primary research studies published after 1999 and reporting resistance of Escherichia coli, Enterococcus spp, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp, and Campylobacter spp to HPCIAs in poultry, cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep in Africa were searched in four databases. A total of 312 articles were included in the review. The majority of the studies (40.7) were conducted in North African countries. More than 49.0% of included studies involved poultry and 26.2% cattle. Cephalosporins and quinolones were the most studied antimicrobial classes. Of the bacteria investigated in the current review, E. coli (41.7%) and Salmonella spp (24.9%) represented the most commonly studied. High levels of resistance against erythromycin in E. coli were found in poultry (MR 96.1%, IQR 83.3-100.0%), cattle (MR 85.7%, IQR 69.2-100.0%), and pigs (MR 94.0%, IQR 86.2-94.0%). In sheep, a high level of resistance was observed in E. coli against nalidixic acid (MR 87.5%, IQR 81.3-93.8%). In goats, the low level of sensibility was noted in S. aureus against streptomycin (MR 86.8%, IQR 19.4-99.0%). The study provides valuable information on HPCIAs resistance in livestock production in Africa and highlights the need for further research and policies to address the public health risk of AMR. This will likely require an investment in diagnostic infrastructure across the continent. Awareness on the harmful impact of AMR in African countries is a requirement to produce more effective and sustainable measures to curb AMR.

Antibiotic Residues in Foods of Animal Origin in Cameroon: Prevalence, Consumers' Risk Perceptions, and attitudes.

The use of antibiotics in food animals and the nonobservance of the withdrawal period might result in the accumulation and persistence of residues in foods. The contamination of foods by antibiotic residues might induce health risks including allergy, gastrointestinal dysbiosis, antimicrobial resistance, and cancer to consumers. Therefore, this study was initiated to investigate the presence of antibiotic residues in raw eggs, raw milk, and beef collected at the wholesale and retail points in the three major cities of Cameroon and consumers' perceptions of the risk of antibiotic residues in foods. Qualitative antibiotic residue kits (PremiTest® and Delvotest®) were used to screen 407 samples of foods collected in markets of three towns (Ngaoundéré, Yaoundé, and Douala) in Cameroon. A structured questionnaire was used to evaluate the knowledge and attitudes of 1462 consumers toward microbial drug residues in foods of animal origin. Prevalence of residues of 70.55%, 17.39%, and 69.63% for beef, eggs, and milk, respectively, was observed. More than 1/3 of the respondents believed that the consumption of contaminated foods with antibiotic residues is a risk to their health and thought that allergies and intoxication they often experience are related to the consumption of contaminated foods. Most of them showed their willingness to pay more to acquire quality foods, free from antibiotic residues.

Zoo-Sanitary Situation Assessment, an Initial Step in Country Disease Prioritization Process: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis from 2000 to 2020 in Cameroon.

To prevent and/or control infectious diseases in animal and human health, an appropriate surveillance system based on suitable up-to-date epidemiological data is required. The systematic review protocol was designed according to the PRISMA statement to look at the available data on infectious diseases of livestock in Cameroon from 2000-2020. Data were searched through online databases. Grey literature was comprised of dissertations and theses from veterinary higher education institutions in Cameroon. A random-effects model was used to calculate pooled prevalence using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Software. Based on disease prevalence, major infectious diseases of livestock in Cameroon were gastrointestinal parasitosis (57.4% in cattle, 67.2% in poultry, 88% in pigs), hemoparasites (21.6% in small ruminants, 19.7% in cattle), bovine pasteurellosis (55.5%), fowl salmonellosis (48.2%), small ruminant plague (39.7%), foot-and-mouth disease (34.5% in cattle), and African swine fever (18.9%). Furthermore, other important endemic zoonoses in the country included: Rift Valley fever (10.9% in cattle, 3.7% in small ruminants), brucellosis (7% in cattle, 8% in pigs), bovine tuberculosis (4.7% in cattle), hepatitis E virus (8.4% in pigs) and bovine leptospirosis (2.5%). Most of the retrieved research were carried out in the Adamawa, Northwest, and West regions of Cameroon. The evaluation of existing data as evidence, albeit publication-specific, is an important step towards the process of prioritizing animal diseases, including zoonoses.

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of African Horse Sickness in Three Agroecological Zones of Cameroon.

African horse sickness (AHS), a highly fatal arbovirosis of equines is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa. However, its epidemiology is poorly known in Cameroon. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence profile and risk factors of African horse sickness in Cameroon. Horse sera were subjected to the ELISA blocking test for the determination of antibodies against African horse sickness virus, and positive samples were submitted to capture ELISA to determine the presence of antigens. Potential risk factors associated with AHS were assessed based on the information collected in the field. The chi-square test and the odd ratio (OR) were used to test the association between serology and the different variables. Of the 336 sera obtained, 198 were positive for antibodies with a prevalence of 58.93% (CI: 53.67-64.19). From the 198 positive sera to antibodies, only one revealed positivity to antigens with a prevalence of 0.51% (CI: 0-1.5). Agroecological zone I (94.31%, CI: 91.83-96.79, OR: 34.92) was significantly (p < 0.05) associated with the higher risk of disease dissemination than agroecological zone II (66.67%, CI: 61.63-71.71, OR: 4.21) and agroecological zone III (32.18%, CI: 27.18-37.18; OR: 1). Males (63.59%, CI: 58.44-68.74, OR: 1) were significantly (p < 0.05) affected than females (50.42%, CI: 45.07-55.77; OR: 0.58). Horses of more than 8 years (76.00%, CI: 71.43-80.57) were significantly (p < 0.05) at risk than young animals of less than 3 years old (32.14%, CI: 27.15-37.13, OR: 0.15). This study highlights a high seroprevalence of antibodies of African horse sickness in Cameroon. Agroecological zone, age, and the importation of horses were highly associated with the distribution of disease at the national level.

Cross-Sectional Survey of Prophylactic and Metaphylactic Antimicrobial Use in Layer Poultry Farming in Cameroon: A Quantitative Pilot Study.

An evaluation of the patterns of antimicrobial use in livestock can help understand the increasing level of antimicrobial resistance worldwide. This study aimed at evaluating antimicrobial usage in modern layer poultry farms in the West Region of Cameroon. In this light, 70 layer poultry farms and 4 veterinary pharmacies were surveyed. Data on antimicrobial use were collected through interviews using a quantitative-frequency questionnaire and consultation of medical records. The four veterinary pharmacies sold a total of 2.8 tons of antimicrobials (active ingredients) during 2011. At the level of farms, 297 kg of antimicrobials (active ingredients) were used in the 50 layer poultry farms surveyed. Tetracycline, sulfonamides, quinolones, and ß-lactams (aminopenicillins) were the most sold and used drugs in layer farms. As for treatment indication, metaphylactic (58.1%) and prophylactic (41.9%) treatments were the most observed practices, and nearly all (99%) treatments were administered per os as remedies to respiratory (33.4%) and digestive (24.7%) tract symptoms. Overall, 78.2% of antimicrobials sold in pharmacies and 67.3% used in the farms belonged to the class of critically important antimicrobials of the WHO categorization of antimicrobials according to their importance to human medicine. Doxycycline, sulfonamide, ampicillin, and streptomycin, which have been banned for layer poultry in the production of eggs for human consumption, were still used in Cameroon. The treatment incidences based on the used daily dose (TIUDD) and animal daily dose (TIADD) were 11.59 and 10.45, respectively. In regard to dosage correctness based on the UDD/ADD ratio, aminoglycosides (100%), macrolides (90.6%), and tetracyclines (74.5%) were the most underdosed, while trimethoprim sulfonamides (45.8%) and ß-lactams (35.7%) were overdosed. This study highlights an irrational antimicrobial usage in layer poultry farms. Regulation of the use of antimicrobials and the education of farmers on adequate antimicrobial use are essential to preserve the effectiveness of drugs in both humans and animals.

Associations between antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli isolated from poultry litter under field conditions in Cameroon.

Lack of hygiene and biosecurity measures in poultry farms has influence on the emergence of pathogens and antimicrobial use. Antimicrobial residues in poultry meat and their excretion by poultry can exert a selective pressure and the occurrence of multidrug resistant bacteria in litter. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance using Escherichia coli as indicator isolated from poultry litter. From January to August, 2019, antimicrobial use was measured in 47 broiler farms based on daily dose (TIUDD) and animal daily dose (TIADD) methods. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed on Escherichia coli isolated from poultry litter using the disk diffusion method. Overall, an average of 143.8 mg (ranging from 0.5 to 2061.79 mg/kg) of antimicrobials was used per kg of chicken produced, and treatment incidences of 69.7 daily doses per 1,000 broilers (44.44-106.35) and 87.3 daily doses per 1,000 broilers (1.74-376.43) were obtained for TIUDD and TIADD, respectively. After a susceptibility testing, 18 E. coli strains were resistant with a prevalence of 56.3% [95% CI: 39.1-73.5]. High levels of resistance were observed with doxycycline, ampicillin and norfloxacin which were observed to be mostly overdosed in farms. The high resistance of E. coli to ciprofloxacin (4/32: 13%), imipenem (6/32: 19%), levofloxacin (12/32: 38%) and ceftriaxone (22/32: 69%) which are second line treatment in hospital settings in Cameroon, and classified as Watch group by WHO, was associated to high AMR risk for public health in Cameroon. Intensification of health and educational sensitisation of farmers is essential to reduce widespread antimicrobial use in poultry farms and its impact public health.

Prescription Pattern of Antimicrobial Use in Small Animal Veterinary Practice in Cameroon.

Retrospective data on antimicrobial use (AMU) within the period ranging from January 2012-December 2015 was collected to assess the antimicrobial prescription patterns in pets (cats and dogs) treated by 16 veterinary private practitioners in the 2 main urban cities of Cameroon (Douala and Yaounde). The vet practitioners were interviewed in order to analyze prescribing behavior and factors influencing antimicrobial prescription. Out of a total of 3928 antimicrobial prescriptions, 3673(93.5%) were recorded in dogs and 255 (6.5%) in cats during the study period in 7 veterinary clinics. The most prescribed antimicrobials were sulfamethoxypyridazine-trimethoprim (dog: 31.2%; cat: 28.6%), benzylpenicillin-streptomycin (dogs:19.0%; cat:21.9%) and marbofloxacin (dogs:18.3%; cats:16.1%). Almost, 64.6% of antimicrobial prescription in dogs was categorized as highly important antimicrobials and 34.9% as critically important antimicrobial agents. In cats, 77.9% of antimicrobial prescription was categorized as highly important antimicrobials and 22.1% as critically important antimicrobial agents. Antimicrobials were mostly used for gastro-intestinal disorders (31.9%) and skin diseases (24. 1%) in dogs while they were mostly applied for surgical problems (29.8%), musculo-skeletal disease (20.4%) and gastro-intestinal tract diseases (19.6%) in cats. Fluoroquinolones were administered as first option instead of third option. Antimicrobials were associated with other veterinary drugs (anti-inflammatory, internal and external parasite therapy) in 75.3% of cases. The prescription of antimicrobials was based on clinical diagnosis (symptom-based), ease of drug administration, owner's purchasing power and antibiogram. This study highlights the necessity to promote antimicrobial stewardship in pet medicine in Cameroon. Confirmatory diagnosis and antibiotic susceptibility testing before antibiotic prescription should be encouraged. The uncontrolled use of critically important antimicrobials for human medicine and especially their indiscriminate use may favor the occurrence of AMR public health issues.

Antimicrobial use and practices by animal health professionals in 20 sub-Saharan African countries.

The use of antimicrobial (AM) in animal production is an important contributor to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) worldwide. Animal health professionals should play a key role in ensuring judicious use of AM. However, they are subjected to influence from clinical and non-clinical factors. The present study evaluates the perceptions and concerns of animal health practitioners regarding antimicrobial use (AMU) and prescription practices. A cross-sectional online questionnaire survey was conducted among animal health practitioners, predominantly veterinary doctors (88 %) in 20 African countries. Results showed that the most prescribed and administered AM were tetracycline (66 %) followed by ß-lactams (32 %) and macrolides (25 %). Most respondents were very confident in deciding on the right dose of AM (77 %) and treatment plans (76 %) as compared to choosing the correct AM (52 %) and making an accurate diagnosis (46 %). Self-reported confidence in the implementation of antimicrobial stewardship was significantly influenced by the respondents' work environment, gender and access to information on AM. Lack of diagnostic facilities and susceptibility tests were major hindrances to adequate prescriptions and use of AM. Perceived drivers of AMR identified were excessive prescription by animal health professionals and the use of AM without proper diagnosis. Almost two thirds (62 %) of the respondents had sufficient information on AM when needed while the main source of information was professional training and drug labels. Thus, reinforcement of regional and country-level guidelines and tailored continuing education programs for veterinarians as well as the development of field-friendly disease diagnosis and management tools are essential to considerably improve AMU.

Poultry Litter Contamination by Escherichia coli Resistant to Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human and Animal Use and Risk for Public Health in Cameroon.

Residues of antimicrobials used in farm can exert selective pressure and accelerate the occurrence of multidrug resistant bacteria in litter. This study aimed to investigate the resistance profile of Escherichia coli isolated from poultry litter. A total of 101 E. coli strains was isolated from 229 litter samples collected and stored for two months in the laboratory at room temperature. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using the disk diffusion method. An overall resistance prevalence of 58.4% (95% CI: 48.8-68.0) was obtained with 59 E. coli strains resistant to various antimicrobial agents. High levels of resistance were observed with ciprofloxacin (21/59: 36%), imipenem (27/59: 45%), norfloxacin (44/59: 74%), ceftriaxone (44/59: 74%), and levofloxacin (44/59: 75%). These antimicrobials classified under the Watch group by WHO are indicators of the high AMR risk to public health in Cameroon. Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that a greater probability of high level of E. coli multidrug resistance was associated with lack of training in poultry farming (OR = 0.13, p = 0.01), less experience in poultry farming (OR = 11.66 p = 0.04), and the high frequency of digestive tract disease (OR = 0.10; p = 0.001). This study revealed that poultry litter constitutes a potential source of dissemination of resistant germs from farm animals to the environment and humans.

Knowledge, attitudes, practices and risk perception of rural poultry farmers in Cameroon to antimicrobial use and resistance.

There is wide use of antimicrobial products in rural poultry farms in most sub-Sahara African countries. However, little is known of the factors that motivate rural poultry farmers towards antimicrobial use (AMU) and their level of awareness about antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This cross sectional survey was conducted to investigate the knowledge, attitudes, practices, perception of poultry farmers in Cameroon about AMU and risk of AMR (KAPP) (n = 358). The data collection was conducted using questionnaires administered through face-to-face interview and the responses were recoded into binary scale. The sum of sufficient responses provided by each participant divided by the total number of items within the category gave a percentage of correct answers. One-way ANOVA was used to assess significant differences of mean KAPP scores across regions. Pearson correlations were used to calculate the association between KAPP scores across and within regions, while the linear regression was done to explore the relationship between demographics and farmer's dynamic characteristics. Overall, surveyed poultry farmers showed low mean score knowledge of AMU (0.30 ±â€¯0.24) and AMR (0.26 ±â€¯0.22), desirable attitude (0.29 ±â€¯0.29), appropriate practice (0.58 ±â€¯0.18) towards AMU and positive risk perception of AMR (0.37 ±â€¯0.21). Digestive tract infections and chronic respiratory diseases were the most common reasons for antimicrobial use and for preventive purposes. Gender, experience in poultry farming and stocking density were negatively associated with practice of antimicrobial use. Inappropriate combination of antimicrobials with diuretics or tetracyclines and minerals for treatment purposes were frequently observed. The findings revealed strong positive association between educational level and KAPP score and between biosecurity measures and AMU and risk perception of AMR. Thus, continuous education of rural poultry farmers on husbandry norms, drug use and microbial resistance in animal farms will enhance their knowledge and risk perception on AMU as well as enable them adopt suitable attitude and practices to control animal and human health hazards due to AMR.

Heat Induces Oxidative Stress: Reproductive Organ Weights and Serum Metabolite Profile, Testes Structure, and Function Impairment in Male Cavy (Cavia porcellus).

The present study was designed to evaluate the effects of heat that induces oxidative stress on reproduction organ weight and serum biochemical, testes structure, and function in male guinea pig (Cavia porcellus). Forty-eight male guinea pigs with an average weight of 330.56 ± 23.62 g, aged 3-4 months, were distributed into four groups of 12 animals each. One group (control) was maintained to ambient temperature (20-25°C), while other groups (Groups 2-4) were exposed daily for 6 h, to 32 ± 1°C, 39±1°C, and 46 ± 1°C, respectively. All animals were sacrificed after 60 days' exposure and their reproductive characteristics values were determined. Results revealed a significant decrease (p < 0.05) of the weight of testes, epididymis, vas deferens, and accessory glands in cavies exposed to the highest temperature investigated (46 ± 1°C), compared to the control animals. There was a significant (p < 0.05) reduction of serum testosterone and LH levels in all heat stress-exposed groups (≥46 ± 1°C) when compared to the control group. Heat stress significantly (p < 0.05) decreased sperm mobility, sperm count, and testicular antioxidant enzymes, while increasing testicular malondialdehyde content. However, the serum level of HSP-40 increased in the animals exposed to 39 ± 1°C and decreased when the cavies were exposed to 46 ± 1°C. In conclusion, exposure to heat-induced oxidative stress results in impairment of reproduction organ weight and serum biochemical, testes structure, and function in male cavies.

Challenges of antimicrobial consumption surveillance in food-producing animals in sub-Saharan African countries: Patterns of antimicrobials imported in Cameroon from 2014 to 2019.

OBJECTIVE: Antimicrobial consumption surveillance is a useful tool for planning antimicrobial resistance control strategies and risk analysis. The present study was carried out to evaluate the consumption trends of antimicrobials for veterinary use in food-producing animals in Cameroon from 2014 to 2019. METHODS: Data on quantities of classes of active substances were collected from the records of the technical authorization to import veterinary drugs of suppliers' invoices at the Ministry of Livestock (MINEPIA); animal population data were collected from the FAO-Stat database. RESULTS: The study revealed that 217.67tonnes of antimicrobials (by weight of active substance) were imported during the 6-year period, with an average of 36.28±10.11tonnes per year. Tetracyclines (31.71%), sulfonamides (23.84%), quinolones (11.11%) and ß-lactams (10.17%) were the most commonly imported classes of antimicrobials. With regard to the importance of veterinary antimicrobials to human medicine, critically important antimicrobial (34.3%), reserve (4.6%) and watch (25.5%) groups as classified by the WHO AWaRe categorization were recorded. Overall, a mean of 5.24±1.40mg/PCU (population correction unit) was used in all food-producing animals during the 6-year period. However, the mean quantity of antimicrobials adjusted by animal biomass was highest in poultry (213.32±50.26mg/kg), followed by pigs (63.04±18.87mg/kg), cattle (4.11±2.20mg/kg), sheep (0.83±0.43mg/kg) and goats (0.47±0.24mg/kg). CONCLUSION: Strict surveillance systems of antimicrobial consumption in the country are vital to optimize control strategies. Monitoring importation data of veterinary antimicrobial products could be useful for sub-Saharan African countries to quantify consumption and estimate trends for antimicrobial usage effectively.