Xmn I polymorphism associated with concomitant activation of Gγ and Aγ globin gene transcription on a ß0-thalassemia chromosome.

The -158 (C→T) nucleotide change, known as Xmn I polymorphism, occurs in (G)γ-globin gene promoter, and results in elevated fetal hemoglobin (HbF). We found this mutation in cis of a ß(0)-thalassemia splicing mutation. Despite the complete absence of adult HbA, the phenotype was only moderately severe with no detectable alteration of α-globin gene expression. Interestingly, the ß-globin locus haplotype has not been described to bear the (G)γ promoter mutation. Using a gene-specific real-time RT-PCR approach, we found a dramatic increase of both (G)γ and (A)γ mRNA accumulated in the reticulocytes, suggesting that the (G)γ-promoter mutation, alone or in association with another genetic modification, alters in concert the transcription of both (G)γ and (A)γ. This observation is discussed in light of recent regulatory model for ß-globin locus.

Homozygous deletion of EPB41 genuine AUG-containing exons results in mRNA splicing defects, NMD activation and protein 4.1R complete deficiency in hereditary elliptocytosis.

Complete loss of protein 4.1R in red blood cell membrane is a very rare condition in humans. We here explore the third case. The morphological and biochemical observations suggested that the proband suffers from homozygous hereditary elliptocytosis. Both parents, who are consanguineous, have an elliptocytosis with no cell fragmentation, typical of a heterozygous 4.1R deficiency with a silent allele. A genomic deletion was found; it encompasses about 50 kb of genomic DNA, and suppresses the two key exons 2 and 4, which contain the two functional AUG translation initiation sites in erythroid and nonerythroid cells. The alternative first exons are intact, hence preserving the transcription potential of the altered gene. Extensive analysis of 4.1R transcripts revealed multiple splicing defects upstream of the deleted sequences. Importantly, we found that most of the transcripts generated from the altered gene are intercepted by the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay mechanism, suggesting that the massive degradation of the mRNA species jeopardizes the production of shortened but functional protein 4.1R from an alternative translation initiation site downstream of the deletion.

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) blockage promotes nonsense mRNA stabilization in protein 4.1R deficient cells carrying the 4.1R Coimbra variant of hereditary elliptocytosis.

We describe a new approach to stabilize nonsense mRNA, based on the inhibition of the NMD mechanism, by combining cycloheximide-mediated inhibition of translation, and caffeine-mediated inhibition of UPF1 phosphorylation. This approach aimed to identify the impact of a 4.1R splicing mutation. This mutation is involved in a partial deficiency of 4.1R in the homozygous state in a patient with hereditary elliptocytosis and a moderated hemolytic anemia. We show that, in addition to two known minor shortened and stable spliceoforms, the mutation activates an intronic cryptic splice site, which results in a nonsense mRNA major isoform, targeted to degradation in intact cells by NMD. This accounts for the main cause of 4.1R partial deficiency. In a general perspective, blocking the NMD mechanism would help to identify a missing isoform, and pave the path for a molecular targeting strategy to circumvent a deleterious splicing pathway in favor of a therapeutic splicing pathway.

Reinforcement of a minor alternative splicing event in MYO7A due to a missense mutation results in a mild form of retinopathy and deafness.

PURPOSE: Recessive mutations of the myosin VIIA (MYO7A) gene are reported to be responsible for both a deaf-blindness syndrome (Usher type 1B [USH1B] and atypical Usher syndrome) and nonsyndromic hearing loss (HL; Deafness, Neurosensory, Autosomal Recessive 2 [DFNB2]). The existence of DFNB2 is controversial, and often there is no relationship between the type and location of the MYO7A mutations corresponding to the USH1B and DFNB2 phenotype. We investigated the molecular determinant of a mild form of retinopathy in association with a subtle splicing modulation of MYO7A mRNA. METHODS: Affected members underwent detailed audiologic and ocular characterization. DNA samples from family members were genotyped with polymorphic microsatellite markers. Sequencing of MYO7A was performed. Endogenous lymphoid RNA analysis and a splicing minigene assay were used to study the effect of the c.1935G>A mutation. RESULTS: Funduscopy showed mild retinitis pigmentosa in adults with HL. Microsatellite analysis showed linkage to markers in the region on chromosome 11q13.5. Sequencing of MYO7A revealed a mutation in the last nucleotide of exon 16 (c.1935G>A), which corresponds to a substitution of a methionine to an isoleucine residue at amino acid 645 of the myosin VIIA. However, structural prediction of the molecular model of myosin VIIA shows that this amino acid replacement induces only minor structural changes in the immediate environment of the mutation and thus does not alter the overall native structure. We found that, although predominantly included in mature mRNA, exon 16 is in fact alternatively spliced in control cells and that the mutation at the very last position is associated with a switch toward a predominant exclusion of that exon. This observation was further supported using a splicing minigene transfection assay; the c.1935G>A mutation was found to trigger a partial impairment of the adjacent donor splice site, suggesting that the unique change at the last position of the exon is responsible for the enhanced exon exclusion in this family. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows how an exonic mutation that weakens the 5' splice site enhances a minor alternative splicing without abolishing a complete exclusion of the exon and therefore causes a less severe retinitis pigmentosa than the USH1B-associated alleles. It would be interesting to examine a possible correlation between intrafamilial phenotypic variability and the subtle variation in exon 16 inclusion, probably related to genetic background specificities.

Cryptic splicing sites are differentially utilized in vivo.

It has long been considered that cryptic splice sites are ignored by the splicing machinery in the context of intact genuine splice sites. In the present study, it is shown that cryptic splice sites are utilized in all circumstances, when the authentic site is intact, partially functional or completely abolished. Their use would therefore contribute to a background lack of fidelity in the context of the wild-type sequence. We also found that a mutation at the 5' splice site of beta-globin intron 1 accommodates multiple cryptic splicing pathways, including three previously reported pathways. Focusing on the two major cryptic 5' splice sites within beta-globin exon 1, we show that cryptic splice site selection ex vivo varies depending upon: (a) the cell stage of development during terminal erythroid differentiation; (b) the nature of the mutation at the authentic 5' splice site; and (c) the nature of the promoter. Finally, we found that the two major cryptic 5' splice sites are utilized with differential efficiencies in two siblings sharing the same beta-globin chromosome haplotype in the homozygous state. Collectively, these data suggest that intrinsic, sequence specific factors and cell genetic background factors both contribute to promote a subtle differential use of cryptic splice sites in vivo.

LAMA2 mRNA processing alterations generate a complete deficiency of laminin-alpha2 protein and a severe congenital muscular dystrophy.

An increasing number of genomic variations are no more regarded as harmless changes in protein coding sequences or as genetic polymorphisms. Studying the impact of these variations on mRNA metabolism became a central issue to better understand the biological significance of disease. We describe here a severe congenital muscular dystrophy (CMD) with lumbar scoliosis and respiratory complications in a patient, who died at the age of 10. Despite a poor linkage to any form of CMD, total deficiency of laminin-alpha2 rather suggested the occurrence of an MDC1A form. Extensive analysis of LAMA2 gene revealed two novel mutations: a (8007delT) frameshift deletion in exon 57, and a de novo 7nt deletion in intron 17. Using an ex vivo approach, we provided strong evidence that the intron mutation is responsible for complete exon 17 skipping. The mutations are in trans and they each generate a nonsense mRNA potentially elicited to degradation by NMD. We further discuss the impact of mRNA alterations on the subtle phenotypic discrepancies.

Severe MDC1A congenital muscular dystrophy due to a splicing mutation in the LAMA2 gene resulting in exon skipping and significant decrease of mRNA level.

Congenital muscular dystrophies (CMDs) are a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of neuromuscular disorders, with autosomal recessive inheritance. We report a patient with severe congenital muscular dystrophy and total deficiency in the laminin alpha2 chain. Genetic analyses showed a linkage to the MDC1A locus for the patient's family, and DNA sequencing revealed in the propositus of a new homozygous mutation in the donor splice site of intron 58 of the LAMA2 gene. RT-PCR experiments performed on total RNA from a patient's muscle biopsy showed a complete skipping of exon 58 in LAMA2 cDNA and a significant decrease in the LAMA2 mRNA level. This exon skipping altered the open reading frame of the mutant transcript and generated a premature termination codon (PTC) within exon 59, which potentially elicits the nonsense mRNA to degradation by NMD (nonsense-mediated mRNA decay). However, the residual exon 58-lacking mRNA could potentially be translated, and the resulting truncated alpha2 chain would lack its LG4 and LG5 domains that are involved in binding with alpha-dystroglycan. These results demonstrate the utility of mRNA analysis to understand the mutation primary impact and the disease phenotype in the patients.

Spi-1/PU.1 but not Fli-1 inhibits erythroid-specific alternative splicing of 4.1R pre-mRNA in murine erythroleukemia cells.

The inclusion of exon 16 in mature protein 4.1R mRNA arises from a stage-specific splicing event that occurs during late erythroid development. We have shown that mouse erythroleukemia (MEL) cells reproduce this erythroid-specific splicing event upon induction of differentiation. We here found that this splicing event is regulated specifically in erythroleukemic cells that have the potential to differentiate and produce hemoglobin, regardless of the nature of the differentiation inducer. Knowing that dysregulated expression of spi-1/pu.1 and fli-1 oncogenes is involved in MEL cell differentiation arrest, we looked at their effect on exon 16 erythroid splicing. We found that exon 16 inclusion requires Spi-1/PU.1 shutdown in MEL cells, and that enforced expression of Spi-1/PU.1 inhibits exon selection, regardless of the presence or absence of a chemical inducer. By contrast, endogenous overexpression or enforced expression of Fli-1 has no effect on exon selection. We further showed that Spi-1/PU.1 acts similarly on the endogenous and on a transfected exon 16, suggesting a promoter-independent effect of Spi-1/PU.1 on splicing regulation. This study provides the first evidence that Spi-1/PU.1 displays the unique property, not shared with Fli-1, to inhibit erythroid-specific pre-mRNA splicing in erythroleukemia cell context.

Protein 4.1R expression in normal and dystrophic skeletal muscle.

4.1R pre-mRNA alternative splicing results in multiple mRNA and protein isoforms that are expressed in virtually all tissues. More specifically, isoforms containing the alternative exon 17a, are exclusively expressed in muscle tissues. In this report, we show that these isoforms are preferentially present in the myoplasm of fast myofibres. 4.1R epitopes are also found at the sarcolemma of both slow and fast myofibres in normal muscle. Interestingly, they are absent from dystrophin-deficient sarcolemma of DMD muscle, and colocalize with partially expressed dystrophin in BMD muscle. We also show that alternative splicing of exons 16 and 17a is regulated during muscle differentiation in an asynchronous fashion, with an early inclusion of exon 16 in forming myotubes, and a late inclusion of exon 17a. Consistently, Western blot analysis led to characterize mainly an approximately 96/98-kDa doublet bearing exons 16-17a-encoding peptide, exclusively occurring in the differentiated muscle.

A splicing alteration of 4.1R pre-mRNA generates 2 protein isoforms with distinct assembly to spindle poles in mitotic cells.

The C-terminal region of erythroid cytoskeletal protein 4.1R, encoded by exons 20 and 21, contains a binding site for nuclear mitotic apparatus protein (NuMA), a protein needed for the formation and stabilization of the mitotic spindle. We have previously described a splicing mutation of 4.1R that yields 2 isoforms: One, CO.1, lacks most of exon 20-encoded peptide and carries a missense C-terminal sequence. The other, CO.2, lacks exon 20-encoded C-terminal sequence, but retains the normal exon 21-encoded C-terminal sequence. Knowing that both shortened proteins are expressed in red cells and assemble to the membrane skeleton, we asked whether they would ensure 4.1R mitotic function in dividing cells. We show here that CO.2, but not CO.1, assembles to spindle poles, and colocalizes with NuMA in erythroid and lymphoid mutated cells, but none of these isoforms interact with NuMA in vitro. In microtubule-destabilizing conditions, again only CO.2 localizes to the centrosomes. These data suggest that the stability of 4.1R association with centrosomes requires an intact C-terminal end, either for a proper conformation of the protein, for a direct binding to an unknown centrosome-cytoskeletal network, or for both. We also found that 4.1G, a ubiquitous homolog of 4.1R, is present in mutated as well as control cells and that its C-terminal region binds efficiently to NuMA, suggesting that in fact mitotic spindles host a mixture of the two 4.1 family members. These findings led to the postulate that the coexpression at the spindle poles of 2 related proteins, 4.1R and 4.1G, might reflect a functional redundancy in mitotic cells.