The buried gems of disease tolerance in animals: Evolutionary and interspecies comparative approaches: Interspecies comparative approaches are valuable tools for exploring potential new mechanisms of disease tolerance in animals: Interspecies comparative approaches are valuable tools for exploring potential new mechanisms of disease tolerance in animals.

Host defense mechanisms are categorized into different strategies, namely, avoidance, resistance and tolerance. Resistance encompasses mechanisms that directly kill the pathogen while tolerance is mainly concerned with alleviating the harsh consequences of the infection regardless of the pathogen burden. Resistance is well-known strategy in immunology while tolerance is relatively new. Studies addressed tolerance mainly using mouse models revealing a wide range of interesting tolerance mechanisms. Herein, we aim to emphasize on the interspecies comparative approaches to explore potential new mechanisms of disease tolerance. We will discuss mechanisms of tolerance with focus on those that were revealed using comparative study designs of mammals followed by summarizing the reasons for adopting comparative approaches on disease tolerance studies. Disease tolerance is a relatively new concept in immunology, we believe combining comparative studies with model organism study designs will enhance our understanding to tolerance and unveil new mechanisms of tolerance.

Heterobothrium lineatus (Monogenea: Diclidophoridae) infecting the gills of the Nile puffer Tetraodon lineatus (Pisces: Tetraodontidae) from the River Nile, Egypt with a new localit record: a light and scanning electron microscopic study.

Heterobothrium lineatus (Monogenea: Diclidophoridae) is described from the gills of Tetraodon lineatus collected from the River Nile at Helwan governorate, Egypt as a new locality record. The morphology and morphometric characterization of the recovered worms were described by means of light and scanning electron microscopy. Twenty two out 35 with a percentage of 62.9% of the examined fish were infected with Heterobothrium sp. (the intensity of infection was about ten worms per fish in general). Most of the infected fish had very pale gills and showed symptoms of anemia. Morphologically, the adult worms were elongated with anterior pointed and posterior broad ends, it measured 1.15-1.76 (1.52 +/- 0.02) mm in length x 0.28-0.39 (0.29 +/- 0.02) mm in width. Two buccal organs situated anteriorly around mouth opening were shown by light and scanning electron microscopy. Haptor subdivided into four pairs of clamps without isthmus separating it from body. The recovered worm differed from the previously species in the same genus by small dimensions of the measurements and presence of a copulatory organ armed with 7-11 genital hooks. Also, it is distinguished from H. tetrodonis and H. okamotoi by absence of a distinct isthmus, and resembled H. lamothei from gills of Sphoeroides testodineus in Mexico and H. lineatus from T. lineatus in Egypt in general appearance and presence of rectangular haptor with the fourth pair of clamps smaller than the previous ones.