Young dentate granule cells mediate pattern separation, whereas old granule cells facilitate pattern completion.

Adult-born granule cells (GCs), a minor population of cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, are highly active during the first few weeks after functional integration into the neuronal network, distinguishing them from less active, older adult-born GCs and the major population of dentate GCs generated developmentally. To ascertain whether young and old GCs perform distinct memory functions, we created a transgenic mouse in which output of old GCs was specifically inhibited while leaving a substantial portion of young GCs intact. These mice exhibited enhanced or normal pattern separation between similar contexts, which was reduced following ablation of young GCs. Furthermore, these mutant mice exhibited deficits in rapid pattern completion. Therefore, pattern separation requires adult-born young GCs but not old GCs, and older GCs contribute to the rapid recall by pattern completion. Our data suggest that as adult-born GCs age, their function switches from pattern separation to rapid pattern completion.

Mouse resources at the RIKEN BioResource Research Center and the National BioResource Project core facility in Japan.

The RIKEN BioResource Research Center (BRC) was established in 2001 as a comprehensive biological resource center in Japan. The Experimental Animal Division, one of the BRC infrastructure divisions, has been designated as the core facility for mouse resources within the National BioResource Project (NBRP) by the Japanese government since FY2002. Our activities regarding the collection, preservation, quality control, and distribution of mouse resources have been supported by the research community, including evaluations and guidance on advancing social and research needs, as well as the operations and future direction of the BRC. Expenditure for collection, preservation, and quality-control operations of the BRC, as a national core facility, has been funded by the government, while distribution has been separately funded by users' reimbursement fees. We have collected over 9000 strains created mainly by Japanese scientists including Nobel laureates and researchers in cutting-edge fields and distributed mice to 7000 scientists with 1500 organizations in Japan and globally. Our users have published 1000 outstanding papers and a few dozen patents. The collected mouse resources are accessible via the RIKEN BRC website, with a revised version of the searchable online catalog. In addition, to enhance the visibility of useful strains, we have launched web corners designated as the "Mouse of the Month" and "Today's Tool and Model." Only high-demand strains are maintained in live colonies, while other strains are cryopreserved as embryos or sperm to achieve cost-effective management. Since 2007, the RIKEN BRC has built up a back-up facility in the RIKEN Harima branch to protect the deposited strains from disasters. Our mice have been distributed with high quality through the application of strict microbial and genetic quality control programs that cover a globally accepted pathogens list and mutated alleles generated by various methods. Added value features, such as information about users' publications, standardized phenotyping data, and genome sequences of the collected strains, are important to facilitate the use of our resources. We have added and disseminated such information in collaboration with the NBRP Information Center and the NBRP Genome Information Upgrading Program. The RIKEN BRC has participated in international mouse resource networks such as the International Mouse Strain Resource, International Mouse Phenotyping Consortium, and Asian Mouse Mutagenesis and Resource Association to facilitate the worldwide use of high-quality mouse resources, and as a consequence it contributes to reproducible life science studies and innovation around the globe.

Efficient production of large deletion and gene fragment knock-in mice mediated by genome editing with Cas9-mouse Cdt1 in mouse zygotes.

Genetically modified mouse models are essential for in vivo investigation of gene function and human disease research. Targeted mutations can be introduced into mouse embryos using genome editing technology such as CRISPR-Cas. Although mice with small indel mutations can be produced, the production of mice carrying large deletions or gene fragment knock-in alleles remains inefficient. We introduced the nuclear localisation property of Cdt1 protein into the CRISPR-Cas system for efficient production of genetically engineered mice. Mouse Cdt1-connected Cas9 (Cas9-mC) was present in the nucleus of HEK293T cells and mouse embryos. Cas9-mC induced a bi-allelic full deletion of Dmd, GC-rich fragment knock-in, and floxed allele knock-in with high efficiency compared to standard Cas9. These results indicate that Cas9-mC is a useful tool for producing mouse models carrying targeted mutations.

Netrin-G/NGL complexes encode functional synaptic diversification.

Synaptic cell adhesion molecules are increasingly gaining attention for conferring specific properties to individual synapses. Netrin-G1 and netrin-G2 are trans-synaptic adhesion molecules that distribute on distinct axons, and their presence restricts the expression of their cognate receptors, NGL1 and NGL2, respectively, to specific subdendritic segments of target neurons. However, the neural circuits and functional roles of netrin-G isoform complexes remain unclear. Here, we use netrin-G-KO and NGL-KO mice to reveal that netrin-G1/NGL1 and netrin-G2/NGL2 interactions specify excitatory synapses in independent hippocampal pathways. In the hippocampal CA1 area, netrin-G1/NGL1 and netrin-G2/NGL2 were expressed in the temporoammonic and Schaffer collateral pathways, respectively. The lack of presynaptic netrin-Gs led to the dispersion of NGLs from postsynaptic membranes. In accord, netrin-G mutant synapses displayed opposing phenotypes in long-term and short-term plasticity through discrete biochemical pathways. The plasticity phenotypes in netrin-G-KOs were phenocopied in NGL-KOs, with a corresponding loss of netrin-Gs from presynaptic membranes. Our findings show that netrin-G/NGL interactions differentially control synaptic plasticity in distinct circuits via retrograde signaling mechanisms and explain how synaptic inputs are diversified to control neuronal activity.

Development of two mouse strains conditionally expressing bright luciferases with distinct emission spectra as new tools for in vivo imaging.

In vivo bioluminescence imaging (BLI) has been an invaluable noninvasive method to visualize molecular and cellular behaviors in laboratory animals. Bioluminescent reporter mice harboring luciferases for general use have been limited to a classical luciferase, Luc2, from Photinus pyralis, and have been extremely powerful for various in vivo studies. However, applicability of reporter mice for in vivo BLI could be further accelerated by increasing light intensity through the use of other luciferases and/or by improving the biodistribution of their substrates in the animal body. Here we created two Cre-dependent reporter mice incorporating luciferases oFluc derived from Pyrocoeli matsumurai and Akaluc, both of which had been reported previously to be brighter than Luc2 when using appropriate substrates; we then tested their bioluminescence in neural tissues and other organs in living mice. When expressed throughout the body, both luciferases emitted an intense yellow (oFluc) or far-red (Akaluc) light easily visible to the naked eye. oFluc and Akaluc were similarly bright in the pancreas for in vivo BLI; however, Akaluc was superior to oFluc for brain imaging, because its substrate, AkaLumine-HCl, was distributed to the brain more efficiently than the oFluc substrate, D-luciferin. We also demonstrated that the lights produced by oFluc and Akaluc were sufficiently spectrally distinct from each other for dual-color imaging in a single living mouse. Taken together, these novel bioluminescent reporter mice are an ideal source of cells with bright bioluminescence and may facilitate in vivo BLI of various tissues/organs for preclinical and biomedical research in combination with a wide variety of Cre-driver mice.

Control of CA3 output by feedforward inhibition despite developmental changes in the excitation-inhibition balance.

In somatosensory cortex, the relative balance of excitation and inhibition determines how effectively feedforward inhibition enforces the temporal fidelity of action potentials. Within the CA3 region of the hippocampus, glutamatergic mossy fiber (MF) synapses onto CA3 pyramidal cells (PCs) provide strong monosynaptic excitation that exhibit prominent facilitation during repetitive activity. We demonstrate in the juvenile CA3 that MF-driven polysynaptic IPSCs facilitate to maintain a fixed EPSC-IPSC ratio during short-term plasticity. In contrast, in young adult mice this MF-driven polysynaptic inhibitory input can facilitate or depress in response to short trains of activity. Transgenic mice lacking the feedback inhibitory loop continue to exhibit both facilitating and depressing polysynaptic IPSCs, indicating that this robust inhibition is not caused by the secondary engagement of feedback inhibition. Surprisingly, eliminating MF-driven inhibition onto CA3 pyramidal cells by blockade of GABA(A) receptors did not lead to a loss of temporal precision of the first action potential observed after a stimulus but triggered in many cases a long excitatory plateau potential capable of triggering repetitive action potential firing. These observations indicate that, unlike other regions of the brain, the temporal precision of single MF-driven action potentials is dictated primarily by the kinetics of MF EPSPs, not feedforward inhibition. Instead, feedforward inhibition provides a robust regulation of CA3 PC excitability across development to prevent excessive depolarization by the monosynaptic EPSP and multiple action potential firings.

Monoclonal antibodies discriminating netrin-G1 and netrin-G2 neuronal pathways.

Netrin-G1 and netrin-G2, belonging to a vertebrate-specific subfamily of the netrin family, distribute on axons of distinct neuronal pathways. To add to the array of molecular probes available for labeling unique neuronal circuits, we generated monoclonal antibodies against the netrin-G1 and netrin-G2 proteins. The monoclonal antibody clones 171A18 and 30B15 differentially labeled specific neuronal circuits, the so-called netrin-G1 or netrin-G2 circuits in mice, respectively. Epitope mapping revealed linear epitopes for these monoclonal antibodies, which are common among splicing variants, and suggested that the anti-netrin-G1 monoclonal antibodies are applicable to various species including humans.

Diversification of behavior and postsynaptic properties by netrin-G presynaptic adhesion family proteins.

BACKGROUND: Vertebrate-specific neuronal genes are expected to play a critical role in the diversification and evolution of higher brain functions. Among them, the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored netrin-G subfamily members in the UNC6/netrin family are unique in their differential expression patterns in many neuronal circuits, and differential binding ability to their cognate homologous post-synaptic receptors. RESULTS: To gain insight into the roles of these genes in higher brain functions, we performed comprehensive behavioral batteries using netrin-G knockout mice. We found that two netrin-G paralogs that recently diverged in evolution, netrin-G1 and netrin-G2 (gene symbols: Ntng1 and Ntng2, respectively), were responsible for complementary behavioral functions. Netrin-G2, but not netrin-G1, encoded demanding sensorimotor functions. Both paralogs were responsible for complex vertebrate-specific cognitive functions and fine-scale regulation of basic adaptive behaviors conserved between invertebrates and vertebrates, such as spatial reference and working memory, attention, impulsivity and anxiety etc. Remarkably, netrin-G1 and netrin-G2 encoded a genetic "division of labor" in behavioral regulation, selectively mediating different tasks or even different details of the same task. At the cellular level, netrin-G1 and netrin-G2 differentially regulated the sub-synaptic localization of their cognate receptors and differentiated the properties of postsynaptic scaffold proteins in complementary neural pathways. CONCLUSIONS: Pre-synaptic netrin-G1 and netrin-G2 diversify the complexity of vertebrate behaviors and differentially regulate post-synaptic properties. Our findings constitute the first genetic analysis of the behavioral and synaptic diversification roles of a vertebrate GPI protein and presynaptic adhesion molecule family.

Complementary expression and neurite outgrowth activity of netrin-G subfamily members.

Classical members of the UNC6/netrin family are secreted proteins which play a role as long-range cues for directing growth cones. We here identified in mice a novel member netrin-G2 which constitute a subfamily with netrin-G1 among the UNC6/netrin family. Both of these netrin-Gs are characterized by glycosyl phosphatidyl-inositol linkage onto cells, molecular variants presumably generated by alternative splicing and lack of any appreciable affinity to receptors for classical netrins. These genes are preferentially expressed in the central nervous system with complementary distribution in most brain areas, that is netrin-G1 in the dorsal thalamus, olfactory bulb and inferior colliculus, and netrin-G2 in the cerebral cortex, habenular nucleus and superior colliculus. Consistently, immunohistochemical analysis revealed that netrin-G1 molecules are present on thalamocortical but not corticothalamic axons. Thalamic and neocortical neurons extended long neurites on immobilized recombinant netrin-G1 or netrin-G2 in vitro. Immobilized anti-netrin-G1 antibodies altered shapes of cultured thalamic neurons. We propose that netrin-Gs provide short-range cues for axonal and/or dendritic behavior through bi-directional signaling.

Laminar organization of the developing lateral olfactory tract revealed by differential expression of cell recognition molecules.

The projection neurons in the olfactory bulb (mitral and tufted cells) send axons through the lateral olfactory tract (LOT) onto several structures of the olfactory cortex. However, little is known of the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying establishment of functional connectivity from the bulb to the cortex. Here, we investigated the developmental process of LOT formation by observing expression patterns of cell recognition molecules in embryonic mice. We immunohistochemically identified a dozen molecules expressed in the developing LOT and some of them were localized to subsets of mitral cell axons. Combinatorial immunostaining for these molecules revealed that the developing LOT consists of three laminas: superficial, middle, and deep. Detailed immunohistochemical, in situ hybridization, and 5-bromodeoxyuridine labeling analyses suggested that the laminar organization reflects: 1) the segregated pathways from the accessory and main olfactory bulbs, and 2) the different maturity of mitral cell axons. Mitral cell axons of the accessory olfactory bulb were localized to the deep lamina, segregated from those of the main olfactory bulb. In the main olfactory pathway, axons of mature mitral cells, whose somata is located in the apical sublayer of the mitral cell layer, were localized to the middle lamina within LOT, while those of immature mitral cells that located in the basal sublayer were complementarily localized to the superficial lamina. These results suggest that newly generated immature axons are added to the most superficial lamina of LOT successively, leading to the formation of piled laminas with different maturational stages of the mitral cell axons.

Expression of Btcl2, a novel member of Btcl gene family, during development of the central nervous system.

Cell-cell interactions are primarily mediated by secreted and transmembrane proteins which play essential roles in the neuronal circuit formation. However, molecular mechanisms underlying neuronal circuit formation, which is mediated by the cell-cell interactions, remain largely elusive. We isolated and characterized a novel gene, Btcl2 (brain-specific transmembrane protein containing CUB [complement subcomponent C1r/C1s, sea urchin protein Uegf, and BMP-1] and LDLa [low-density lipoprotein receptor domain class A] domains 2), using the signal sequence trap (SST) method. The extracellular domain of BTCL2 contains two CUB domains and an LDLa domain. BTCL2 and BTCL1 have similar domain structures, sharing 51% overall identity. The CUB1, CUB2, and LDLa domains of these two proteins share 63%, 72%, and 84% identity, respectively. The CUB domains of BTCL1 and BTCL2 share significant identity with those of neuropilins. Btcl2 mRNA was detected as a single 6-kb transcript in Northern blot analysis. In situ hybridization (ISH) analysis revealed that both Btcl1 and Btcl2 mRNAs were observed restrictively in brain throughout embryonic and postnatal stages. Btcl1 and Btcl2 mRNAs were expressed uniquely in the pontine nucleus and subplate, which are required for establishing the neuronal circuit formation. These results will aid in resolving the mechanisms underlying neuronal circuit formations (e.g., pontocerebellar and thalamocortical axon guidance) and permit more precise studies aimed at understanding the role of BTCL1 and BTCL2 in the central nervous system.

Competition from newborn granule cells does not drive axonal retraction of silenced old granule cells in the adult hippocampus.

In the developing nervous system synaptic refinement, typified by the neuromuscular junction where supernumerary connections are eliminated by axon retraction leaving the postsynaptic target innervated by a single dominant input, critically regulates neuronal circuit formation. Whether such competition-based pruning continues in established circuits of mature animals remains unknown. This question is particularly relevant in the context of adult neurogenesis where newborn cells must integrate into preexisting circuits, and thus, potentially compete with functionally mature synapses to gain access to their postsynaptic targets. The hippocampus plays an important role in memory formation/retrieval and the dentate gyrus (DG) subfield exhibits continued neurogenesis into adulthood. Therefore, this region contains both mature granule cells (old GCs) and immature recently born GCs that are generated throughout adult life (young GCs), providing a neurogenic niche model to examine the role of competition in synaptic refinement. Recent work from an independent group in developing animals indicated that embryonically/early postnatal generated GCs placed at a competitive disadvantage by selective expression of tetanus toxin (TeTX) to prevent synaptic release rapidly retracted their axons, and that this retraction was driven by competition from newborn GCs lacking TeTX. In contrast, following 3-6 months of selective TeTX expression in old GCs of adult mice we did not observe any evidence of axon retraction. Indeed ultrastructural analyses indicated that the terminals of silenced GCs even maintained synaptic contact with their postsynaptic targets. Furthermore, we did not detect any significant differences in the electrophysiological properties between old GCs in control and TeTX conditions. Thus, our data demonstrate a remarkable stability in the face of a relatively prolonged period of altered synaptic competition between two populations of neurons within the adult brain.

Entorhinal cortex layer III input to the hippocampus is crucial for temporal association memory.

Associating temporally discontinuous elements is crucial for the formation of episodic and working memories that depend on the hippocampal-entorhinal network. However, the neural circuits subserving these associations have remained unknown. The layer III inputs of the entorhinal cortex to the hippocampus may contribute to this process. To test this hypothesis, we generated a transgenic mouse in which these inputs are specifically inhibited. The mutant mice displayed significant impairments in spatial working-memory tasks and in the encoding phase of trace fear-conditioning. These results indicate a critical role of the entorhinal cortex layer III inputs to the hippocampus in temporal association memory.

Hippocampal CA3 output is crucial for ripple-associated reactivation and consolidation of memory.

A widely held memory consolidation theory posits that memory of events and space is initially stored in the hippocampus (HPC) in a time-limited manner and is consolidated in the neocortex for permanent storage. Although posttraining HPC lesions result in temporally graded amnesia, the precise HPC circuits and mechanisms involved in remote memory storage remain poorly understood. To investigate the role of the trisynaptic pathway in the consolidation process we employed the CA3-TeTX transgenic mouse, in which CA3 output can be specifically and inducibly controlled. We found that posttraining blockade of CA3 output for up to 4 weeks impairs the consolidation of contextual fear memory. Moreover, in vivo hippocampal recordings revealed a reduced intrinsic frequency of CA1 ripples and a significant decrease in the experience-dependent, ripple-associated coordinated reactivation of CA1 cell pairs. Collectively, these results suggest that the posttraining integrity of the trisynaptic pathway and the ripple-associated reactivation of hippocampal memory engram are crucial for memory consolidation.

Transgenic inhibition of synaptic transmission reveals role of CA3 output in hippocampal learning.

The hippocampus is an area of the brain involved in learning and memory. It contains parallel excitatory pathways referred to as the trisynaptic pathway (which carries information as follows: entorhinal cortex --> dentate gyrus --> CA3 --> CA1 --> entorhinal cortex) and the monosynaptic pathway (entorhinal cortex --> CA1 --> entorhinal cortex). We developed a generally applicable tetanus toxin-based method for transgenic mice that permits inducible and reversible inhibition of synaptic transmission and applied it to the trisynaptic pathway while preserving transmission in the monosynaptic pathway. We found that synaptic output from CA3 in the trisynaptic pathway is dispensable and the short monosynaptic pathway is sufficient for incremental spatial learning. In contrast, the full trisynaptic pathway containing CA3 is required for rapid one-trial contextual learning, for pattern completion-based memory recall, and for spatial tuning of CA1 cells.

Axonal netrin-Gs transneuronally determine lamina-specific subdendritic segments.

Axons from a distinct group of neurons make contact with dendritic trees of target neurons in clearly segregated and laminated patterns, thereby forming functional units for processing multiple inputs of information in the vertebrate central nervous system. Whether and how dendrites acquire lamina-specific properties corresponding to each pathway is not known. We show here that vertebrate-specific membrane-anchored members of the UNC-6/netrin family, netrin-G1 and -G2, organize the lamina/pathway-specific differentiation of dendrites. Netrin-G1 and -G2 distribute on axons of different pathways and specifically interact with receptors NGL-1 and -2, respectively. In the hippocampus, parietal cortex, and piriform cortex, NGL-1 is concentrated in the dendritic segments corresponding to the lamina-specific termination of netrin-G1-positive axons, and NGL-2 is concentrated in distinct dendritic segments corresponding to the termination of netrin-G2-positive axons. In netrin-G1- and -G2-deficient mice, in which axonal path-finding is normal, the segmental distribution of NGL-1 and -2 is selectively disrupted, and the individual receptors are diffused along the dendrites. These findings indicate that transneuronal interactions of netrin-Gs and their specific receptors provide a molecular basis for the axonal innervation-dependent mechanism of postsynaptic membrane organization, and provide insight into the formation of the laminar structure within the dendrites.

Human netrin-G1 isoforms show evidence of differential expression.

The recently identified netrins-G1 and -G2 form a distinct subgroup within the UNC-6/netrin gene family of axon guidance molecules. In this study, we determined the size and structure of the exon/intron layout of the human netrin-G1 (NTNG1) and -G2 (NTNG2) genes. Northern analysis of both genes showed limited nonneuronal but wide brain expression, particularly for NTNG2. Reverse transcriptase PCR detected nine alternatively spliced isoforms including four novel variants of NTNG1 from adult brain. A semiquantitative assay established that major expression was restricted to isoforms G1c, G1d, G1a, and G1e in the brain and to G1c in the kidney. There is also evidence of developmental regulation of these isoforms between fetal and adult brain. In conclusion, NTNG1 may use alternative splicing to diversify its function in a developmentally and tissue-specific manner.

A novel gene, Btcl1, encoding CUB and LDLa domains is expressed in restricted areas of mouse brain.

A variety of secreted and membrane proteins play key roles in the formation of neuronal circuits in the central nervous system. Using the signal sequence trap method, we isolated and characterized a novel gene, Btcl1 (brain-specific transmembrane protein containing two CUB and an LDLa domains). BTCL1 has significant homology with neuropilin-1 and -2 in their CUB domains. Domain structure of BTCL1 indicates that BTCL1 belongs to a new class of brain-specific CUB domain-containing protein. On Northern blot analysis, Btcl1 mRNA was observed as a single transcript of 3.7 kb specifically in the brain. In situ hybridization analysis revealed that Btcl1 mRNA was highly expressed in the hippocampal CA3 region, olfactory bulb, and neocortex in the adult brain. Expression pattern of mRNA and structural similarity with neuropilin suggest that BTCL1 plays a role in the development and/or maintenance of neuronal circuitry.