Molecular Genetics of Acquired Temporal Lobe Epilepsy.

An epilepsy diagnosis reduces a patient's quality of life tremendously, and it is a fate shared by over 50 million people worldwide. Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is largely considered a nongenetic or acquired form of epilepsy that develops in consequence of neuronal trauma by injury, malformations, inflammation, or a prolonged (febrile) seizure. Although extensive research has been conducted to understand the process of epileptogenesis, a therapeutic approach to stop its manifestation or to reliably cure the disease has yet to be developed. In this review, we briefly summarize the current literature predominately based on data from excitotoxic rodent models on the cellular events proposed to drive epileptogenesis and thoroughly discuss the major molecular pathways involved, with a focus on neurogenesis-related processes and transcription factors. Furthermore, recent investigations emphasized the role of the genetic background for the acquisition of epilepsy, including variants of neurodevelopmental genes. Mutations in associated transcription factors may have the potential to innately increase the vulnerability of the hippocampus to develop epilepsy following an injury-an emerging perspective on the epileptogenic process in acquired forms of epilepsy.

Evaluation of 3D Footprint Morphology of Knee-Related Muscle Attachments Based on CT Data Reconstruction: A Feasibility Study.

A three-dimensional (3D) understanding of muscle attachment footprints became increasingly relevant for musculoskeletal modeling. The established method to project attachments as points ignores patient-specific individuality. Research focuses on investigating certain muscle groups rather than comprehensively studying all muscles spanning a joint. Therefore, we present a reliable method to study several muscle attachments in order to reconstruct the attachment sites in 3D based on CT imaging for future applications in musculoskeletal modeling. For the present feasibility study, 23 knee-related muscle attachments were CT-scanned postmortem from four nonadipose male specimens. For this, the specific muscle attachments were dissected and marked with a barium sulfate containing paint (60 g BaSO4 in 30 mL water and 10 mL acrylic paint). Subsequently, bone geometries and muscle attachments were reconstructed and evaluated from CT datasets. Bone morphology and footprint variations were studied. Exemplarily, variations were high for pes anserinus insertions (mean 56%) and the origins of M. biceps femoris (mean 54%). In contrast, the origins of the vastus muscles as well as the insertion of the Achilles tendon showed low variation (mean 9% and 13%, respectively). Most attachment sites showed variation exceeding the individuality of bone morphology. In summary, the present data were consistent with the few published studies of specific muscle footprints. Our data shed light on the high variability of muscle attachments, which need to be addressed when studying muscle forces and movements through musculoskeletal modeling. This is the first step to achieving a more profound understanding of muscle morphology to be utilized in numerical simulations.

Dietary induction of obesity and insulin resistance is associated with changes in Fgf21 DNA methylation in liver of mice.

DNA methylation is dynamically regulated in metabolic diseases, but it remains unclear whether the changes are causal or consequential. Therefore, we used a longitudinal approach to refine the onset of metabolic and DNA methylation changes at high temporal resolution. Male C57BL/6N mice were fed with 60 % high-fat diet (HFD) for up to 12 weeks and metabolically characterized weekly. Liver was collected after 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 12 weeks and hepatic DNA methylation and gene expression were analyzed. A subset of obese mice underwent vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG) or metformin treatment and livers were studied. Distinct hepatic gene expression patterns developed upon feeding HFD, with genes from the fatty acid metabolism pathway being predominantly altered. When comparing metabolic data with gene expression and DNA methylation, in particular Fgf21 DNA methylation decreased before the onset of increased Fgf21 expression and metabolic changes. Neither weight loss induced by VSG nor improved glucose tolerance by metformin treatment could revert hepatic Fgf21 DNA methylation or expression. Our data emphasize the dynamic induction of DNA methylation upon metabolic stimuli. Reduced Fgf21 DNA methylation established before massive overexpression of Fgf21, which is likely an adaptive effort of the liver to maintain glucose homeostasis despite the developing insulin resistance and steatosis. Fgf21 DNA methylation resisted reversion by intervention strategies, illustrating the long-term effects of unhealthy lifestyle. Our data provide a temporal roadmap to the development of hepatic insulin resistance, comprehensively linking DNA methylation with gene expression and metabolic data.

Restructuring of the male mice peripheral circadian network after bariatric surgery.

Bariatric surgery is still the most effective long-term weight-loss therapy. Recent data indicate that surgical outcomes may be affected by diurnal food intake patterns. In this study, we aimed to investigate how surgery-induced metabolic adaptations (i.e. weight loss) interact with circadian clock function. For that reason, vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG) was performed in obese mice and rhythms in behavior, tissue rhythmicity, and white adipose tissue transcriptome were evaluated. VSG under constant darkness conditions led to a maximum weight loss of 18% compared to a loss of 3% after sham surgery. Post-surgical weight development was characterized by two distinct intervals of catabolic and subsequent anabolic metabolic state. Locomotor activity was not affected. However, VSG significantly increased active phase meal frequency in the anabolic state. No significant effects on clock gene rhythmicity were detected in adrenal and white adipose tissue (WAT) explant cultures. Transcriptome rhythm analyses of subcutaneous WAT revealed a reduction of cycling genes after VSG (sham: 2493 vs VSG: 1013) independent of sustained rhythms in core clock gene expression. This may be a consequence of weight loss-induced morphological reconstruction of WAT that overwrites the direct influence of the local clock machinery on the transcriptome. However, VSG altered rhythmic transcriptional regulation of WAT lipid metabolism pathways. Thus, our data suggest a reorganization of diurnal metabolic rhythms after VSG downstream of the molecular clock machinery.

Regulation and function of extra-SCN circadian oscillators in the brain.

Most organisms evolved endogenous, so called circadian clocks as internal timekeeping mechanisms allowing them to adapt to recurring changes in environmental demands brought about by 24-hour rhythms such as the light-dark cycle, temperature variations or changes in humidity. The mammalian circadian clock system is based on cellular oscillators found in all tissues of the body that are organized in a hierarchical fashion. A master pacemaker located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) synchronizes peripheral tissue clocks and extra-SCN oscillators in the brain with each other and with external time. Different time cues (so called Zeitgebers) such as light, food intake, activity and hormonal signals reset the clock system through the SCN or by direct action at the tissue clock level. While most studies on non-SCN clocks so far have focused on peripheral tissues, several extra-SCN central oscillators were characterized in terms of circadian rhythm regulation and output. Some of them are directly innervated by the SCN pacemaker, while others receive indirect input from the SCN via other neural circuits or extra-brain structures. The specific physiological function of these non-SCN brain oscillators as well as their role in the regulation of the circadian clock network remains understudied. In this review we summarize our current knowledge about the regulation and function of extra-SCN circadian oscillators in different brain regions and devise experimental approaches enabling us to unravel the organization of the circadian clock network in the central nervous system.

Circadian regulation of endocrine systems.

Hormones are major systemic regulators of homeostatic functions. Not surprisingly, most endocrine signals show some extent of variation across the day. This holds true for the three major hormonal axes of the body originating from the hypothalamus, relayed by the pituitary and terminating in the adrenal (HPA axis), the thyroid (HPT axis), and the gonads (HPG axis), respectively. The rhythmicity of endocrine axis formation has important functions for the maintenance of homeostasis and stabilizes physiological functions against external perturbations. In some cases, such as cortisol, hormonal signals are themselves implicated in circadian regulation and, thus, endocrine disruption may affect the function of the circadian clock network to alter further downstream processes.

Ultrahigh-Field Quantitative MR Microscopy of the Chicken Eye In Vivo Throughout the In Ovo Period.

PURPOSE: Ultrahigh-field MRI (UHF-MRI) with an in-plane spatial resolution of less than 100 µm is known as MR microscopy (MRM). MRM provides highly resolved anatomical images and allows quantitative assessment of different tissue types using diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI). The aim of the present study was to evaluate the feasibility of combined in vivo anatomical and quantitative assessment of the developing chicken eye in ovo. PROCEDURES: Thirty-eight fertilized chicken eggs were examined at 7.1 T (ClinScan, Bruker Biospin, Germany) acquiring a dataset comprising T2-weighted anatomical images, DWI, and diffusion tensor imaging. To reduce motion artifacts, the eggs were moderately cooled before and during MR imaging. Two eggs were imaged daily for the entire developmental period, and 36 eggs were examined pairwise at only one time point of the embryonic period. Development of the eye was anatomically and quantitatively assessed. RESULTS: From the D5 embryonic stage (116-124 h), MRM allowed differentiation between lens and vitreous body. The lens core and periphery were first identified at D9. DWI allowed quantification of lens maturation based on a significant decrease in apparent diffusion coefficient values and course of fractional anisotropy. Repeated moderate cooling had no influence on the development of the chicken embryo. CONCLUSIONS: MRM allows in vivo assessment of embryonic development of the chicken eye in ovo without affecting normal development. The method provides anatomical information supplemented by quantitative evaluation of lens development using DWI. With increasing availability of ultrahigh-field MR systems, this technique may provide a noninvasive complementary tool in the field of experimental ophthalmology.

Circadian clock-gastrointestinal peptide interaction in peripheral tissues and the brain.

Food intake and sleep are two mutually exclusive behaviors and both are normally confined to opposing phases of the diurnal cycle. The temporal coordination of behavior and physiology along the 24-h day-night cycle is organized by a network of circadian clocks that orchestrate transcriptional programs controlling cellular physiology. Many of the peptide hormones of the gastrointestinal tract are not only secreted in a circadian fashion, they can also affect circadian clock function in peripheral metabolic tissues and the brain, thus providing metabolic feedback to metabolic and neurobehavioral circuits. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on this gastrointestinal peptide crosstalk and its potential role in the coordination of nutrition and the maintenance of metabolic homeostasis.

Mycophenolate mofetil prevents the delayed T cell response after pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus in mice.

Growing clinical and laboratory evidence corroborates a role for the immune system in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. In order to delineate the immune response following pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE) in the mouse, we monitored the kinetics of leukocyte presence in the hippocampus over the period of four weeks. SE was induced following a ramping protocol of pilocarpine injection into 4-5 weeks old C57BL/6 mice. Brains were removed at days 1-4, 14 or 28 after SE, and the hippocampi were analyzed via flow cytometry, via quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (qRT-PCR) and via immunohistochemistry. Epileptogenesis was confirmed by Timm staining of mossy fiber sprouting in the inner molecular layer of the dentate gyrus. The flow cytometry data revealed a biphasic immune response following pilocarpine-induced SE with a transient increase in activated CD11b+ and F4/80+ macrophages within the first four days replaced by an increase in CD3+ T-lymphocytes around day 28. This delayed T cell response was confirmed via qRT-PCR and via immunohistochemistry. In addition, qRT-PCR data could show that the delayed T cell response was associated with an increased CD8/CD4 ratio indicating a cytotoxic T cell response after SE. Intriguingly, early intervention with mycophenolate mofetil administration on days 0-3 after SE prevented this delayed T cell response. These results show an orchestrated immunological sequela and provide evidence that the delayed T cell response is sensitive to early immunomodulatory intervention.

Intrastriatally injected botulinum neurotoxin-A differently effects cholinergic and dopaminergic fibers in C57BL/6 mice.

Unilateral intrastriatal BoNT-A injection abolished apomorphine-induced rotational behavior in a rat model of hemiparkinsonism (hemi-PD) up to 6months. It was hypothesized that the beneficial effect of botulinum neurotoxin-A (BoNT-A) grounded on the reduction of the Parkinson's diseases (PD) associated striatal hypercholinism. Intrastriatal injection of BoNT-A was not cytotoxic in rat brain, but neuronal fiber swellings in the BoNT-A infiltrated striata appeared and named BoNT-A-induced varicosities (BiVs). In the rat BiVs were immunoreactive (ir) either for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) or tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). In the present study the structural effect of unilateral intrastriatal BoNT-A injection in the naïve mouse brain was analyzed to extend possible therapeutic BoNT-A applications to genetical Parkinsonian strains. We investigated the effect of a single dose of 25pg BoNT-A injected into the right caudate-putamen (CPu) for up to 9months, and of increasing doses up to 200pg on striatal volume, number of ChAT-ir interneurons, and numeric density and volume of the ChAT-ir BiVs in comparison to the uninjected hemisphere. Intrastriatal BoNT-A injection did not alter the number of ChAT-ir interneurons irrespective of survival time and dosage tested. However, the numeric density of the ChAT-ir BiVs at a dose of 25pg increased from 1 to 3months after BoNT-A, followed by a time dependent decrease. In parallel, with increasing BoNT-A survival time, the mean BiV volume increased as the number of small BiVs decreased. Interestingly, in contrast to rats we did not find TH-ir BiVs in BoNT-A injected mouse striatum.

Morphologic and biometric evaluation of chick embryo eyes in ovo using 7 Tesla MRI.

The purposes of this study were (1) to characterize embryonic eye development during incubation in ovo and (2) to analyze the putative influence of repetitive ultrahigh-field MRI (UHF-MRI) measurements on this development. A population of 38 fertilized chicken eggs was divided into two sub-groups: two eggs (Group A) were examined repeatedly during the developmental period from embryonic day 1 (E1) to embryonic day 20 (E20) to evaluate the influence of daily MRI scanning. A second larger group of 36 eggs was examined pairwise on one day only, from E3 to E20, and the embryos were sacrificed immediately after MR imaging (Group B). Fast T2-weighted MR sequences provided biometric data on the eye with an in-plane resolution of 74 µm. The data show rapid growth of the eye with a steep increase in intraocular dimensions in all axis directions and in eyeball volume during initial development up to E10, followed by a phase of reduced growth rate in later developmental stages. Comparison of the two groups revealed no differences in ocular development.