Glucoselysine, a unique advanced glycation end-product of the polyol pathway and its association with vascular complications in type 2 diabetes.

Glucoselysine (GL) is an unique advanced glycation end-product derived from fructose. The main source of fructose in vivo is the polyol pathway, and an increase in its activity leads to diabetic complications. Here, we aimed to demonstrate that GL can serve as an indicator of the polyol pathway activity. Additionally, we propose a novel approach for detecting GL in peripheral blood samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and evaluate its clinical usefulness. We successfully circumvent interference from fructoselysine, which shares the same molecular weight as GL, by performing ultrafiltration and hydrolysis without reduction, successfully generating adequate peaks for quantification in serum. Furthermore, using immortalized aldose reductase KO mouse Schwann cells, we demonstrate that GL reflects the downstream activity of the polyol pathway and that GL produced intracellularly is released into the extracellular space. Clinical studies reveal that GL levels in patients with type 2 diabetes are significantly higher than those in healthy participants, while Nδ-(5-hydro-5-methyl-4-imidazolon-2-yl)ornithine (MG-H1) levels are significantly lower. Both GL and MG-H1 show higher values among patients with vascular complications; however, GL varies more markedly than MG-H1 as well as hemoglobin A1c, fasting plasma glucose, and estimated glomerular filtration rate. Furthermore, GL remains consistently stable under various existing drug treatments for type 2 diabetes, whereas MG-H1 is impacted. To the best of our knowledge, we provide important insights in predicting diabetic complications caused by enhanced polyol pathway activity via assessment of GL levels in peripheral blood samples from patients.

Effects of dexamethasone on opioid consumption in pediatric tonsillectomy: a systematic review with meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: Tonsillectomy is one of the most common ambulatory procedures performed in children worldwide, with around 40,000 procedures performed in Canada every year. Although a prior systematic review indicated a clear role for dexamethasone as an analgesic adjunct, the quantity effect on opioid consumption is unknown. In the current systematic review with meta-analysis, we hypothesized that the use of dexamethasone reduces perioperative opioid consumption in pediatric tonsillectomy but does not increase rates of postoperative hemorrhage. SOURCE: We systemically searched MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Databases, and Web of Science from inception to 23 April 2024. Randomized controlled trials that compared intravenous dexamethasone to placebo in pediatric tonsillectomy were included in the study. The primary outcome was perioperative opioid consumption, and the secondary outcomes included the incidence of postoperative hemorrhage. We used a random effects meta-analysis to compute the mean difference (MD) or risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) for each outcome. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Of the 1,329 studies identified in the search, we included 16 in the final analysis. Intravenous dexamethasone administration significantly reduced opioid consumption (MD, -0.11 mg·kg-1 oral morphine equivalent; 95% CI, -0.22 to -0.01) without increasing the incidence of readmission (RR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.28 to 1.67) or reoperation due to postoperative hemorrhage (RR, 3.67; 95% CI, 0.79 to 17.1). CONCLUSIONS: Intravenous dexamethasone reduced perioperative opioid consumption in pediatric tonsillectomy without increasing the incidence of postoperative hemorrhage. STUDY REGISTRATION: PROSPERO ( CRD42023440949 ); first submitted 4 September 2023.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: L'amygdalectomie est l'une des interventions ambulatoires les plus courantes chez les enfants dans le monde, avec environ 40 000 interventions réalisées au Canada chaque année. Bien qu'une revue systématique antérieure ait clairement indiqué le rôle de la dexaméthasone en tant qu'adjuvant analgésique, son effet quantitatif sur la consommation d'opioïdes est inconnu. Dans la présente revue systématique avec méta-analyse, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que l'utilisation de la dexaméthasone réduirait la consommation périopératoire d'opioïdes lors des cas d'amygdalectomie pédiatrique sans augmenter les taux d'hémorragie postopératoire. SOURCES: Nous avons effectué des recherches systématiques dans les bases de données MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane et Web of Science depuis leur création jusqu'au 23 avril 2024. Nous avons inclus les études randomisées contrôlées comparant la dexaméthasone intraveineuse à un placebo dans les cas d'amygdalectomie pédiatrique. Le critère d'évaluation principal était la consommation périopératoire d'opioïdes, et les critères d'évaluation secondaires comprenaient l'incidence d'hémorragie postopératoire. Nous avons utilisé une méta-analyse à effets aléatoires pour calculer la différence moyenne (DM) ou le risque relatif (RR) avec un intervalle de confiance (IC) à 95 % pour chaque critère d'évaluation. CONSTATATIONS PRINCIPALES: Sur les 1329 études identifiées dans la recherche, nous en avons inclus 16 dans l'analyse finale. L'administration intraveineuse de dexaméthasone a permis de réduire significativement la consommation d'opioïdes (DM, −0,11 mg·kg−1 en équivalent oral de morphine; IC 95 %, −0,22 à −0,01) sans augmenter l'incidence de réadmission (RR, 0,69; IC 95 %, 0,28 à 1,67) ou de réopération due à une hémorragie postopératoire (RR, 3,67; IC à 95 %, 0,79 à 17,1). CONCLUSION: La dexaméthasone par voie intraveineuse a réduit la consommation périopératoire d'opioïdes dans les cas d'amygdalectomie pédiatrique, sans augmenter l'incidence d'hémorragie postopératoire. ENREGISTREMENT DE L'éTUDE: PROSPERO ( CRD42023440949 ); première soumission le 4 septembre 2023.

Docosahexaenoic Acid Suppresses Oxidative Stress-Induced Autophagy and Cell Death via the AMPK-Dependent Signaling Pathway in Immortalized Fischer Rat Schwann Cells 1.

Autophagy is the process by which intracellular components are degraded by lysosomes. It is also activated by oxidative stress; hence, autophagy is thought to be closely related to oxidative stress, one of the major causes of diabetic neuropathy. We previously reported that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) induced antioxidant enzymes and protected Schwann cells from oxidative stress. However, the relationship between autophagy and oxidative stress-induced cell death in diabetic neuropathy has not been elucidated. Treatment with tert-butyl hydroperoxide (tBHP) decreased the cell survival rate, as measured by an MTT assay in immortalized Fischer rat Schwann cells 1 (IFRS1). A DHA pretreatment significantly prevented tBHP-induced cytotoxicity. tBHP increased autophagy, which was revealed by the ratio of the initiation markers, AMP-activated protein kinase, and UNC51-like kinase phosphorylation. Conversely, the DHA pretreatment suppressed excessive tBHP-induced autophagy signaling. Autophagosomes induced by tBHP in IFRS1 cells were decreased to control levels by the DHA pretreatment whereas autolysosomes were only partially decreased. These results suggest that DHA attenuated excessive autophagy induced by oxidative stress in Schwann cells and may be useful to prevent or reduce cell death in vitro. However, its potentiality to treat diabetic neuropathy must be validated in in vivo studies.

Continuing versus withholding angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB)/calcium channel blocker (CCB) combination tablets during perioperative periods in patients undergoing minor surgery: a single-blinded randomized controlled trial.

PURPOSE: This trial was conducted to compare effects of continuing versus withholding single-pill combination tablets consisting of angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) and calcium channel blockers (CCBs) on perioperative hemodynamics and clinical outcomes. METHODS: Patients undergoing minor abdominal or urological surgery (n = 106) were randomly assigned to Group C, in which ARB/CCB combination tablets were continued until surgery, or Group W, in which they were withheld within 24 h of surgery. Perioperative hemodynamics and clinical outcomes were compared between the Groups. RESULTS: The incidence of hypotension during anesthesia requiring repeated treatment with vasoconstrictors was higher in Group C than Group W (p = 0.0052). Blood pressure during anesthesia was generally lower in Group C than Group W (p < 0.05) despite significantly more doses of ephedrine and phenylephrine administrated in Group C (p = 0.0246 and p = 0.0327, respectively). The incidence of postoperative hypertension did not differ between Groups (p = 0.3793). Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) on the preoperative day did not differ between Groups (p = 0.7045), while eGFR was slightly lower in Group C than Group W on the first and third postoperative days (p = 0.0400 and p = 0.0088, respectively), although clinically relevant acute kidney injury did not develop. CONCLUSIONS: Continuing ARB/CCB combination tablets preoperatively in patients undergoing minor surgery increased the incidence of hypotension during anesthesia, increased requirements of vasoconstrictors to treat hypotension, and might deteriorate postoperative renal function, albeit slightly. These results suggest that withholding ARB/CCB tablets preoperatively is preferable to continuing them. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial is registered with the Japan Registry of Clinical Trials (jRCT) at Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare (Trial ID: jRCT1031190027).

Exendin-4 Promotes Schwann Cell Survival/Migration and Myelination In Vitro.

Besides its insulinotropic actions on pancreatic ß cells, neuroprotective activities of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) have attracted attention. The efficacy of a GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist exendin-4 (Ex-4) for functional repair after sciatic nerve injury and amelioration of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) has been reported; however, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, the bioactivities of Ex-4 on immortalized adult rat Schwann cells IFRS1 and adult rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neuron-IFRS1 co-culture system were investigated. Localization of GLP-1R in both DRG neurons and IFRS1 cells were confirmed using knockout-validated monoclonal Mab7F38 antibody. Treatment with 100 nM Ex-4 significantly enhanced survival/proliferation and migration of IFRS1 cells, as well as stimulated the movement of IFRS1 cells toward neurites emerging from DRG neuron cell bodies in the co-culture with the upregulation of myelin protein 22 and myelin protein zero. Because Ex-4 induced phosphorylation of serine/threonine-specific protein kinase AKT in these cells and its effects on DRG neurons and IFRS1 cells were attenuated by phosphatidyl inositol-3'-phosphate-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002, Ex-4 might act on both cells to activate PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, thereby promoting myelination in the co-culture. These findings imply the potential efficacy of Ex-4 toward DPN and other peripheral nerve lesions.

Aldose Reductase and the Polyol Pathway in Schwann Cells: Old and New Problems.

Aldose reductase (AR) is a member of the reduced nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-dependent aldo-keto reductase superfamily. It is also the rate-limiting enzyme of the polyol pathway, catalyzing the conversion of glucose to sorbitol, which is subsequently converted to fructose by sorbitol dehydrogenase. AR is highly expressed by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The excess glucose flux through AR of the polyol pathway under hyperglycemic conditions has been suggested to play a critical role in the development and progression of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). Despite the intensive basic and clinical studies over the past four decades, the significance of AR over-activation as the pathogenic mechanism of DPN remains to be elucidated. Moreover, the expected efficacy of some AR inhibitors in patients with DPN has been unsatisfactory, which prompted us to further investigate and review the understanding of the physiological and pathological roles of AR in the PNS. Particularly, the investigation of AR and the polyol pathway using immortalized Schwann cells established from normal and AR-deficient mice could shed light on the causal relationship between the metabolic abnormalities of Schwann cells and discordance of axon-Schwann cell interplay in DPN, and led to the development of better therapeutic strategies against DPN.

Glycolaldehyde induces sensory neuron death through activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p-38 MAP kinase pathways.

Glycolaldehyde (GA) is a highly reactive hydroxyaldehyde and one of the glycolytic metabolites producing advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), but its toxicity toward neurons and Schwann cells remains unclear. In the present study, we found that GA exhibited more potent toxicity than other AGE precursors (glyceraldehyde, glyoxal, methylglyoxal and 3-deoxyglucosone) against immortalized IFRS1 adult rat Schwann cells and ND7/23 neuroblastoma × neonatal rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neuron hybrid cells. GA affected adult rat DRG neurons and ND7/23 cells more severely than GA-derived AGEs, and exhibited concentration- and time-dependent toxicity toward ND7/23 cells (10 < 100 < 250 < 500 µM; 6 h < 24 h). Treatment with 500 µM GA significantly up-regulated the phosphorylation of c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p-38 mitogen-activated kinase (p-38 MAPK) in ND7/23 cells. Furthermore, GA-induced ND7/23 cell death was significantly inhibited due to co-treatment with 10 µM of the JNK inhibitor SP600125 or the p-38 MAPK inhibitor SB239063. These findings suggest the involvement of JNK and p-38 MAPK-signaling pathways in GA-induced neuronal cell death and that enhanced GA production under diabetic conditions might be involved in the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy.

Drug-Induced Demyelinating Neuropathies.

A large variety of drugs have been reported to cause peripheral neuropathies as dose-limiting adverse effects; however, most of them primarily affect axons and/or neuronal cell bodies rather than Schwann cells and/or myelin sheaths. In this chapter, we focus on the drugs that seem to elicit the neuropathies with schwannopathy and/or myelinopathy-predominant phenotypes, such as amiodarone, dichloroacetate, and tumor necrosis factor-α antagonists. Although the pathogenesis of demyelination induced by these drugs remain largely obscure, the recent in vivo and in vitro studies have implicated the involvement of metabolic abnormalities and impaired autophagy in Schwann cells and immune system disorders in the disruption of neuron-Schwann cell contact and interactions.

A spontaneously immortalized Schwann cell line from aldose reductase-deficient mice as a useful tool for studying polyol pathway and aldehyde metabolism.

The increased glucose flux into the polyol pathway via aldose reductase (AR) is recognized as a major contributing factor for the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy, whereas little is known about the functional significance of AR in the peripheral nervous system. Spontaneously immortalized Schwann cell lines established from long-term cultures of AR-deficient and normal C57BL/6 mouse dorsal root ganglia and peripheral nerves can be useful tools for studying the physiological and pathological roles of AR. These cell lines, designated as immortalized knockout AR Schwann cells 1 (IKARS1) and 1970C3, respectively, demonstrated distinctive Schwann cell phenotypes, such as spindle-shaped morphology and immunoreactivity to S100, p75 neurotrophin receptor, and vimentin, and extracellular release of neurotrophic factors. Conditioned media obtained from these cells promoted neuronal survival and neurite outgrowth of cultured adult mouse dorsal root ganglia neurons. Microarray and real-time RT-PCR analyses revealed significantly down-regulated mRNA expression of polyol pathway-related enzymes, sorbitol dehydrogenase and ketohexokinase, in IKARS1 cells compared with those in 1970C3 cells. In contrast, significantly up-regulated mRNA expression of aldo-keto reductases (AKR1B7 and AKR1B8) and aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH1L2, ALDH5A1, and ALDH7A1) was detected in IKARS1 cells compared with 1970C3 cells. Exposure to reactive aldehydes (3-deoxyglucosone, methylglyoxal, and 4-hydroxynonenal) significantly up-regulated the mRNA expression of AKR1B7 and AKR1B8 in IKARS1 cells, but not in 1970C3 cells. Because no significant differences in viability between these two cell lines after exposure to these aldehydes were observed, it can be assumed that the aldehyde detoxification is taken over by AKR1B7 and AKR1B8 in the absence of AR.

Establishment of a myelinating co-culture system with a motor neuron-like cell line NSC-34 and an adult rat Schwann cell line IFRS1.

Co-culture models of neurons and Schwann cells have been utilized for the study of myelination and demyelination in the peripheral nervous system; in most of the previous studies, however, these cells were obtained by primary culture with embryonic or neonatal animals. A spontaneously immortalized Schwann cell line IFRS1 from long-term cultures of adult Fischer rat peripheral nerves has been shown to retain fundamental ability to myelinate neurites in co-cultures with adult rat dorsal root ganglion neurons and nerve growth factor-primed PC12 cells. Our current investigation focuses on the establishment of stable co-culture system with IFRS1 cells and NSC-34 motor neuron-like cells. NSC-34 cells were seeded at a low density (2 × 103/cm2) and maintained for 5-7 days in serum-containing medium supplemented with non-essential amino acids and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF; 10 ng/mL). Upon observation of neurite outgrowth under a phase-contrast microscope, the NSC-34 cells were exposed to an anti-mitotic agent mitomycin C (1 µg/mL) for 12-16 h, then co-cultured with IFRS1 cells (2 × 104/cm2), and maintained in serum-containing medium supplemented with ascorbic acid (50 µg/mL), BDNF (10 ng/mL), and ciliary neurotrophic factor (10 ng/mL). Double immunofluorescence staining carried out at day 28 of the co-culture showed myelin protein (P0 or PMP22)-immunoreactive IFRS1 cells surrounding the ßIII tubulin-immunoreactive neurites. This co-culture system can be a beneficial tool to study the pathogenesis of motor neuron diseases (e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Charcot-Marie-Tooth diseases, and immune-mediated demyelinating neuropathies) and novel therapeutic approaches against them.

Anesthetic management without perioperative platelet transfusion for cervical laminectomy and laminoplasty in a case of May-Hegglin anomaly.

May-Hegglin anomaly (MHA) is an inherited autosomal dominant disorder characterized by giant platelets and inclusion bodies in granulocytes, and thrombocytopenia. There is no consensus on the perioperative management of this disorder. We report a case involving a patient with MHA who was perioperatively managed without platelet transfusion for cervical laminectomy and laminoplasty. In our case, the platelet count was measured to be 0.6 × 104/µL using an automatic blood cell counter. Peripheral blood smear and genetic test analyses were performed, leading to a definitive diagnosis of MHA. However, clot retraction, serotonin release, and platelet aggregation were normal. Total intravenous anesthesia with propofol and remifentanil, in combination with intermittent injection of fentanyl, was administered. The total blood loss volume was 300 mL, and perioperative course was uneventful. Visual platelet count and platelet function were preserved in this case, although platelet or red blood cell transfusion was not performed. No bleeding tendency was observed during perioperative management.

DNA polymerase κ-dependent DNA synthesis at stalled replication forks is important for CHK1 activation.

Formation of primed single-stranded DNA at stalled replication forks triggers activation of the replication checkpoint signalling cascade resulting in the ATR-mediated phosphorylation of the Chk1 protein kinase, thus preventing genomic instability. By using siRNA-mediated depletion in human cells and immunodepletion and reconstitution experiments in Xenopus egg extracts, we report that the Y-family translesion (TLS) DNA polymerase kappa (Pol κ) contributes to the replication checkpoint response and is required for recovery after replication stress. We found that Pol κ is implicated in the synthesis of short DNA intermediates at stalled forks, facilitating the recruitment of the 9-1-1 checkpoint clamp. Furthermore, we show that Pol κ interacts with the Rad9 subunit of the 9-1-1 complex. Finally, we show that this novel checkpoint function of Pol κ is required for the maintenance of genomic stability and cell proliferation in unstressed human cells.

Involvement of oxidative stress and impaired lysosomal degradation in amiodarone-induced schwannopathy.

Amiodarone hydrochloride (AMD), an anti-arrhythmic agent, has been shown to cause peripheral neuropathy; however, its pathogenesis remains unknown. We examined the toxic effects of AMD on an immortalized adult rat Schwann cell line, IFRS1, and cocultures of IFRS1 cells and adult rat dorsal root ganglion neurons or nerve growth factor-primed PC12 cells. Treatment with AMD (1, 5, and 10 µm) induced time- and dose-dependent cell death, accumulation of phospholipids and neutral lipids, upregulation of the expression of gangliosides, and oxidative stress (increased nuclear factor E2-related factor in nuclear extracts and reduced GSH/GSSG ratios) in IFRS1 cells. It also induced the upregulation of LC3-II and p62 expression, with phosphorylation of p62, suggesting that deficient autolysosomal degradation is involved in AMD-induced IFRS1 cell death. Furthermore, treatment of the cocultures with AMD induced detachment of IFRS1 cells from neurite networks in a time- and dose-dependent manner. These findings suggest that AMD-induced lysosomal storage accompanied by enhanced oxidative stress and impaired lysosomal degradation in Schwann cells might be a cause of demyelination in the peripheral nervous system.

Schwann cells contribute to neurodegeneration in transthyretin amyloidosis.

Familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP) is one of the transthyretin (TTR) amyloidoses characterized by extracellular amyloid deposits and peripheral nerve involvement. Recently, we found significant expression of the TTR gene in Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system. We hypothesized that local expression of variant TTR in Schwann cells may contribute to neurodegeneration in FAP. Schwann cells derived from the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) of transgenic mice expressing variant human TTR in a mouse null background were cultured long term to obtain spontaneously immortalized cell lines. We established an immortalized Schwann cell line, TgS1, derived from the transgenic mice. TgS1 cells synthesized variant TTR and secreted it into the medium. As sensory neuropathy usually arises early in FAP, we examined the effect of the conditioned medium derived from TgS1 cells on neurite outgrowth from DRG sensory neurons. Conditioned medium derived from TgS1 cells inhibited neurite outgrowth from the sensory neurons. TTR deposition in the DRG of aged transgenic mice was investigated by immunohistochemistry. TTR aggregates were observed in the cytoplasm of Schwann cells and satellite cells. Proteasome inhibition induced TTR aggregates as aggresomes in TgS1 cells. In conclusion, local variant TTR gene expression in Schwann cells might trigger neurodegeneration in FAP. We established a spontaneously immortalized Schwann cell line derived from familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy transgenic mice. Conditioned medium from the cells contained variant transthyretin (TTR), and inhibited neurite outgrowth of neurons. TTR aggregates were observed in the Schwann cells and satellite cells of aged mice. Proteasome inhibition induced TTR aggregates as aggresomes in the cultured cells. These results support the hypothesis that Schwann cells contribute to neurodegeneration in familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP).

Neurotrophic and neuroprotective properties of exendin-4 in adult rat dorsal root ganglion neurons: involvement of insulin and RhoA.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is thought to preserve neurons and glia following axonal injury and neurodegenerative disorders. We investigated the neurotrophic and neuroprotective properties of exendin (Ex)-4, a synthetic GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist, on adult rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and PC12 cells. GLP-1R was predominantly localized on large and small peptidergic neurons in vivo and in vitro, suggesting the involvement of GLP-1 in both the large and small sensory fiber functions. Ex-4 dose-dependently (1 ≤ 10 ≤ 100 nM) promoted neurite outgrowth and neuronal survival at 2 and 7 days in culture, respectively. Treatment with 100 nM Ex-4 restored the reduced neurite outgrowth and viability of DRG neurons caused by the insulin removal from the medium and suppressed the activity of RhoA, an inhibitory regulator for peripheral nerve regeneration, in PC12 cells. Furthermore, these effects were attenuated by co-treatment with phosphatidylinositol-3'-phosphate kinase (PI3K) inhibitor, LY294002. These findings imply that Ex-4 enhances neurite outgrowth and neuronal survival through the activation of PI3K signaling pathway, which negatively regulates RhoA activity. Ex-4 and other GLP-1R agonists may compensate for the reduced insulin effects on neurons, thereby being beneficial for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy.

Isolation and Culture of Adult Rat Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons for the In Vitro Analysis of Peripheral Nerve Degeneration and Regeneration.

Isolation and culture of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons from adult animals is a useful experimental system for evaluating neural plasticity after axonal injury, as well as the neurological dysfunction resulting from aging and various types of disease. In this chapter, we will introduce a detailed method for the culture of mature rat DRG neurons. About 30-40 ganglia are dissected from a rat and mechanically and enzymatically digested. Subsequently, density gradient centrifugation of the digested tissue using 30% Percoll efficiently eliminates myelin debris and non-neuronal cells, to afford neuronal cells with a high yield and purity.

[Pathogenic Mechanisms of Diabetic Neuropathy].

Diabetes stands as the predominant cause of peripheral neuropathy, and diabetic neuropathy (DN) is an early-onset and most frequent complication of diabetes. Distal symmetric polyneuropathy is the major form of DN; however, various patterns of nerve injury can manifest. Growing evidence suggests that hyperglycemia-related metabolic disorders in neurons, Schwann cells, and vascular endothelial cells play a major role in the development and progression of DN; however, its pathogenesis and development of disease-modifying therapies warrant further investigation. Herein, recent studies regarding the possible pathogenic factors of DN (polyol and other collateral glycolysis pathways, glycation, oxidative stress, Rho/Rho kinase signaling pathways, etc.) and therapeutic strategies targeting these factors are introduced.

Minocycline suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by increasing tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that are secreted by activated T cells play a significant role in degradation of the extracellular matrix around the blood vessels and facilitate autoimmune neuroinflammation; however, it remains unclear how MMPs act in lesion formation and whether MMP-targeted therapies are effective in disease suppression. In the present study, we attempted to treat experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) by administration of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) for MMP-2, MMP-9, and minocycline, all of which have MMP-inhibiting functions. Minocycline, but not siRNAs, significantly suppressed disease development. In situ zymography revealed that gelatinase activities were almost completely suppressed in the spinal cords of minocycline-treated animals, while significant gelatinase activities were measured in the EAE lesions of control animals. However, MMP-2 and MMP-9 mRNAs and proteins in the spinal cords of treated rats were unexpectedly upregulated. At the same time, mRNA for tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMP)-1 and -2 were also upregulated. The EnzChek Gelatinase/Collagenase assay using tissue containing native MMPs and TIMPs demonstrated that gelatinase activity levels in the spinal cords of treated rats were suppressed to the same level as those in normal spinal cord tissues. Finally, double immunofluorescent staining demonstrated that MMP-9 immunoreactivities of treated rats were almost the same as those of control rats and that MMP-9 and TIMP-1 immunoreactivities were colocalized in the spinal cord. These findings suggest that minocycline administration does not suppress MMPs at mRNA and protein levels but that it suppresses gelatinase activities by upregulating TIMPs. Thus, MMP-targeted therapies should be designed after the mechanisms of candidate drugs have been considered.