Treatment response to isotretinoin correlates with specific shifts in Cutibacterium acnes strain composition within the follicular microbiome.

There are no drugs as effective as isotretinoin for acne. Deciphering the changes in the microbiome induced by isotretinoin in the pilosebaceous follicle of successfully treated patients can pave the way to identify novel therapeutic alternatives. We determined how the follicular microbiome changes with isotretinoin and identified which alterations correlate with a successful treatment response. Whole genome sequencing was done on casts from facial follicles of acne patients sampled before, during and after isotretinoin treatment. Alterations in the microbiome were assessed and correlated with treatment response at 20 weeks as defined as a 2-grade improvement in global assessment score. We investigated the α-diversity, ß-diversity, relative abundance of individual taxa, Cutibacterium acnes strain composition and bacterial metabolic profiles with a computational approach. We found that increased ß-diversity of the microbiome coincides with a successful treatment response to isotretinoin at 20 weeks. Isotretinoin selectively altered C. acnes strain diversity in SLST A and D clusters, with increased diversity in D1 strains correlating with a successful clinical response. Isotretinoin significantly decreased the prevalence of KEGG Ontology (KO) terms associated with four distinct metabolic pathways inferring that follicular microbes may have limited capacity for growth or survival following treatment. Importantly, these alterations in microbial composition or metabolic profiles were not observed in patients that failed to achieve a successful response at 20 weeks. Alternative approaches to recapitulate this shift in the balance of C. acnes strains and microbiome metabolic function within the follicle may be beneficial in the future treatment of acne.

Evolution of the facial skin microbiome during puberty in normal and acne skin.

BACKGROUND: The composition of the skin microbiome varies from infancy to adulthood and becomes most stable in adulthood. Adult acne patients harbour an 'acne microbiome' dominated by specific strains of Cutibacterium acnes. However, the precise timing of skin microbiome evolution, the development of the acne microbiome, and the shift to virulent C. acnes strain composition during puberty is unknown. OBJECTIVES: We performed a cross-sectional pilot study in a paediatric population to understand how and when the skin microbiome composition transitions during puberty and whether a distinct 'acne microbiome' emerges in paediatric subjects. METHODS: Forty-eight volunteers including males and females, ages 7-17 years, with and without acne were enrolled and evaluated for pubertal development using the Tanner staging criteria. Sebum levels were measured, and skin microbiota were collected by sterile swab on the subject's forehead. DNA was sequenced by whole genome shotgun sequencing. RESULTS: A significant shift in microbial diversity emerged between early (T1-T2) and late (T3-T5) stages of puberty, coinciding with increased sebum production on the face. The overall relative abundance of C. acnes in both normal and acne skin increased during puberty and individual C. acnes strains were uniquely affected by pubertal stage and the presence of acne. Further, an acne microbiome signature associated with unique C. acnes strain composition and metabolic activity emerges in late puberty in those with acne. This unique C. acnes strain composition is predicted to have increased porphyrin production, which may contribute to skin inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that the stage of pubertal development influences skin microbiome composition. As children mature, a distinct acne microbiome composition emerges in those with acne. Understanding how both puberty and acne influence the microbiome may support novel therapeutic strategies to combat acne in the paediatric population.

Activation of extrasynaptic δ-GABAA receptors globally or within the posterior-VTA has estrous-dependent effects on consumption of alcohol and estrous-independent effects on locomotion.

Recent reports support higher than expected rates of binge alcohol consumption among women and girls. Unfortunately, few studies have assessed the mechanisms underlying this pattern of intake in females. Studies in males suggest that alcohol concentrations relevant to the beginning stages of binge intoxication may selectively target tonic GABAergic inhibition mediated by GABAA receptor subtypes expressing the δ-subunit protein (δ-GABAARs). Indeed, administration of agonists that interact with these δ-GABAARs prior to alcohol access can abolish binge drinking behavior in male mice. These δ-GABAARs have also been shown to exhibit estrous-dependent plasticity in regions relevant to drug taking behavior, like the hippocampus and periaqueductal gray. The present experiments were designed to determine whether the estrous cycle would alter binge drinking, or our ability to modulate this pattern of alcohol use with THIP, an agonist with high selectivity and efficacy at δ-GABAARs. Using the Drinking-in-the-Dark (DID) binge-drinking model, regularly cycling female mice were given 2h of daily access to alcohol (20%v/v). Vaginal cytology or vaginal impedance was assessed after drinking sessions to track estrous status. There was no fluctuation in binge drinking associated with the estrous cycle. Both Intra-posterior-VTA administration of THIP and systemic administration of the drug was also associated with an estrous cycle dependent reduction in drinking behavior. Pre-treatment with finasteride to inhibit synthesis of 5α-reduced neurosteroids did not disrupt THIP's effects. Analysis of δ-subunit mRNA from posterior-VTA enriched tissue samples revealed that expression of this GABAA receptor subunit is elevated during diestrus in this region. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that δGABAARs in the VTA are an important target for binge drinking in females and confirm that the estrous cycle is an important moderator of the pharmacology of this GABAA receptor subtype.

Segregating attention from response control when performing a motor inhibition task: Segregating attention from response control.

Considerable work has demonstrated that inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), anterior insula cortex (AIC) and the supplementary motor area (SMA) are responsive during inhibitory control tasks. However, there is disagreement as to whether this relates to response selection/ inhibition or attentional processing. The current study investigates this by using a Go/No-go task with a factorial design. We observed that both left IFG and dorsal pre-SMA were responsive to no-go cues irrespective of cue frequency. This suggests a role for both in the inhibition of motor responses. Generalized psychophysiological interaction (gPPI) analyses suggest that inferior frontal gyrus may implement this function through interaction with basal ganglia and by suppressing the visual representation of cues associated with no-go responses. Anterior insula cortex and a more ventral portion of pre-SMA showed greater responsiveness to low frequency relative to higher frequency stimuli, irrespective of response type. This may reflect the hypothesized role of anterior insula cortex in marking low frequency items for additional processing (cf. Menon and Uddin, 2010). Consistent with this, the gPPI analysis revealed significantly greater anterior insula cortex connectivity with visual cortex in response to low relative to high frequency cues.

Quantitative cellular-resolution map of the oxytocin receptor in postnatally developing mouse brains.

The oxytocin receptor (OTR) plays critical roles in social behavior development. Despite its significance, brain-wide quantitative understanding of OTR expression remains limited in postnatally developing brains. Here, we develop postnatal 3D template brains to register whole brain images with cellular resolution to systematically quantify OTR cell densities. We utilize fluorescent reporter mice (Otrvenus/+) and find that cortical regions show temporally and spatially heterogeneous patterns with transient postnatal OTR expression without cell death. Cortical OTR cells are largely glutamatergic neurons with the exception of cells in layer 6b. Subcortical regions show similar temporal regulation except the hypothalamus and two hypothalamic nuclei display sexually dimorphic OTR expression. Lack of OTR expression correlates with reduced dendritic spine densities in selected cortical regions of developing brains. Lastly, we create a website to visualize our high-resolution imaging data. In summary, our research provides a comprehensive resource for postnatal OTR expression in the mouse brain.

The processing of animacy information is disrupted as a function of callous-unemotional traits in youth with disruptive behavior disorders.

Atypical amygdala responses to emotional stimuli have been consistently reported in youth with Disruptive Behavior Disorders (DBDs; Conduct Disorder/Oppositional Defiant Disorder). However, responding to animacy stimuli has not been systematically investigated. Yet, the amygdala is known to be responsive to animacy stimuli and impairment in responsiveness to animacy information may have implications for social cognitive development. Twenty-nine youth with DBDs and 20 typically developing youth, matched for IQ, age (Mage  = 14.45, SD = 2.05) and gender, completed a dot probe task during fMRI. Stimuli consisted of negative/faces, negative/objects, neutral/faces and neutral/objects images. Youth with DBDs, relative to typically developing youth, showed: i) reduced amygdala and lateral temporal cortex responses to faces relative to objects. Moreover, within the group of youth with DBDs, increasing callous-unemotional traits were associated with lesser amygdala responses to faces relative to objects. These data suggest that youth with DBDs, particularly those with high levels of CU traits exhibit dysfunction in animacy processing in the amygdala. This dysfunction may underpin the asociality reported in these youth.

BOLD data representing activation and connectivity for rare no-go versus frequent go cues.

The neural circuitry underlying response control is often studied using go/no-go tasks, in which participants are required to respond as fast as possible to go cues and withhold from responding to no-go stimuli. In the current task, response control was studied using a fully counterbalanced design in which blocks with a low frequency of no-go cues (75% go, 25% no-go) were alternated with blocks with a low frequency of go cues (25% go, 75% no-go); see also "Segregating attention from response control when performing a motor inhibition task: Segregating attention from response control" [1]. We applied a whole brain corrected, paired t-test to the data assessing for regions differentially activated by low frequency no-go cues relative to high frequency go cues. In addition, we conducted a generalized psychophysiological interaction analysis on the data using a right inferior frontal gyrus seed region. This region was identified through the BOLD response t-test and was chosen because right inferior gyrus is highly implicated in response inhibition.

Executive attention control and emotional responding in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder--A functional MRI study.

BACKGROUND: There are suggestions that patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) show impairment in executive attention control and emotion regulation. This study investigated emotion regulation as a function of the recruitment of executive attention in patients with ADHD. METHODS: Thirty-five healthy children/adolescents (mean age = 13.91) and twenty-six children/adolescents with ADHD (mean age = 14.53) participated in this fMRI study. They completed the affective Stroop paradigm viewing positive, neutral and negative images under varying cognitive loads. A 3-way ANOVA (diagnosis-by-condition-by-emotion) was conducted on the BOLD response data. Following this, 2 3-way ANOVAs (diagnosis-by-condition-by-emotion) were applied to context-dependent psychophysiological interaction (gPPI) analyses generated from a dorsomedial frontal cortex and an amygdala seed (identified from the BOLD response ANOVA main effects of condition and emotion respectively). RESULTS: A diagnosis-by-condition interaction within dorsomedial frontal cortex revealed reduced recruitment of dorsomedial frontal cortex as a function of increased task demands in the children/adolescents with ADHD relative to healthy children/adolescents. The level of reduction in recruitment of dorsomedial frontal cortex was significantly correlated with symptom severity (total and hyperactivity) measured by Conner's Parent Report Scale in the children/adolescents with ADHD. In addition, analysis of gPPI data from a dorsomedial frontal cortex seed revealed significant diagnosis-by-condition interactions within lateral frontal cortex; connectivity between dorsomedial frontal cortex and lateral frontal cortex was reduced in the patients with ADHD relative to comparison youth during congruent and incongruent task trials relative to view trials. There were no interactions of group, or main effect of group, within the amygdala in the BOLD response ANOVA (though children/adolescents with ADHD showed increased responses to positive images within temporal cortical regions during task trials; identified by the diagnosis-by-condition-by-emotion interaction). However, analysis of gPPI data from an amygdala seed revealed decreased connectivity between amygdala and lentiform nucleus in the presence of emotional stimuli in children/adolescents with ADHD (diagnosis-by-emotion interaction). CONCLUSION: The current study demonstrated disrupted recruitment of regions implicated in executive function and impaired connectivity within those regions in children/adolescents with ADHD. There were also indications of heightened representation of emotional stimuli in patients with ADHD. However, as the findings were specific for positive stimuli, the suggestion of a general failure in emotion regulation in ADHD was not supported.

The amygdala's response to face and emotional information and potential category-specific modulation of temporal cortex as a function of emotion.

The amygdala has been implicated in the processing of emotion and animacy information and to be responsive to novelty. However, the way in which these functions interact is poorly understood. Subjects (N = 30) viewed threatening or neutral images that could be either animate (facial expressions) or inanimate (objects) in the context of a dot probe task. The amygdala showed responses to both emotional and animacy information, but no emotion by stimulus-type interaction; i.e., emotional face and object stimuli, when matched for arousal and valence, generate comparable amygdala activity relative to neutral face and object stimuli. Additionally, a habituation effect was not seen in amygdala; however, increased amygdala activity was observed for incongruent relative to congruent negative trials in second vs. first exposures. Furthermore, medial fusiform gyrus showed increased response to inanimate stimuli, while superior temporal sulcus showed increased response to animate stimuli. Greater functional connectivity between bilateral amygdala and medial fusiform gyrus was observed to negative vs. neutral objects, but not to fearful vs. neutral faces. The current data suggest that the amygdala is responsive to animate and emotional stimuli. Additionally, these data suggest that the interaction between the various functions of the amygdala may need to be considered simultaneously to fully understand how they interact. Moreover, they suggest category-specific modulation of medial fusiform cortex as a function of emotion.

Neurodevelopmental changes in the responsiveness of systems involved in top down attention and emotional responding.

In this study, we aimed to investigate age related changes in systems implicated in top down attention and the implications of this for amygdala responses to emotional distracters. Fifty-one healthy subjects including 18 children (aged 10-14), 15 adolescents (aged 14-18), and 18 young adults (aged 18-25) completed the affective Stroop paradigm while undergoing functional MRI. While achieving comparable behavioral performance, children, relative to adolescents and adults, showed increased activation in areas including anterior cingulate gyrus and precentral gyrus in task relative to view trials. In addition, children showed increased activation within the amygdala and fusiform gyrus in response to emotional stimuli. Notably, the group difference within the amygdala was particularly pronounced during task trials. Also children showed increased connectivity between amygdala and superior frontal gyrus and bilateral postcentral gyrii in response to negative task trials. These data are consistent with previous work indicating less consolidated functional integrity in regions implicated in top down attention in children relative to older participants and extend this work by indicating that this less consolidated functional integrity leads to reduced automatic emotion regulation as a function of top down attention. Given that reduced automatic emotion regulation as a function of top down attention is considered a risk factor for the development of anxiety disorders, these data may contribute to an understanding of the increased risk for the development of these disorders at this age.