Zoonotic Risks of Sleeping with Pets.

BACKGROUND: Pets are increasingly becoming part of the family and interactions between pets and their owners is changing. This results in extended and more intimate contact between owners and their pets, which give rise to zoonotic risks. OBJECTIVE: To establish the presence of potential zoonotic pathogens in pets that sleep with their owner. METHODS: As a pilot study, a group of 28 healthy dogs and 22 healthy cats were monitored for the presence of the zoonotic parasites Cheyletiella, Ctenocephalides spp. and Toxocara spp., the dermatophyte Microsporum canis, and the bacteria Clostridium difficile, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter jejuni and Enterobacteriaceae. This was investigated by taking samples from the fur, the footpads and the animal bed. The owners filled in a questionnaire. RESULTS: In total, 29 of the 50 pets (58%) slept on the bed, of which 15 pets (30%) slept in the bed (under the blankets). A total of 19/22 dogs (86%) and 7/22 cats (32%) tested positive for Enterobacteriaceae on the fur or footpads. Fleas were found in 5/22 of the cats' (23%) and 2/28 of the dogs' (7%) favourite sleeping spots. High levels of aerobic colonies were found, up to 216 colony forming units/cm2. Other pathogens were not found in this study. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this preliminary study confirm literature reports that pets may constitute a potential risk in the transmission of zoonotic pathogens to their owner, especially during direct contact when sleeping in the same bed. Owners should therefore be informed about these risks and educated to interact with their pets in a more responsible way.

A Pilot Study on the Contamination of Assistance Dogs' Paws and Their Users' Shoe Soles in Relation to Admittance to Hospitals and (In)Visible Disability.

(1) Background: People with disabilities may benefit from an assistance dog (AD). Despite regulations that prohibit the denial of ADs to public places, this still occurs on a regular basis. The main argument for denial of access is that dogs compromise hygiene with their presence, which could cause a health hazard. Meanwhile, people are allowed to walk into and out of public places freely. (2) Objective: As a pilot study, to investigate the number of Enterobacteriaceae and the presence of Clostridium difficile bacteria on the paws of ADs and pet dogs (PDs) as well as the shoe soles of their users and owners. With the results, an assessment can be made as to whether measures are required to reduce environmental contamination (e.g., in hospitals). (3) Methods: In total, 25 ADs, 25 PDs, and their 50 users/owners participated in the study. Each participant walked their dog for 15-30 min prior to the sampling of the front paws. Each PD owner or AD user filled out a general questionnaire about the care of their dogs, and AD users were asked to fill out an additional questionnaire on their experiences regarding the admittance of their ADs to public places (in particular, hospitals). Dutch hospitals were questioned on their protocols regarding the admittance of ADs and their visitor numbers, including the percentage of AD users, to put these numbers into perspective. (4) Results: Dog paws were more often negative for Enterobacteriaceae compared to shoe soles (72% and 42%, respectively) and also had significantly lower bacterial counts (mean of 3.54log10 and 5.03log10 colony-forming units (CFUs), respectively; p < 0.05). This was most distinct in the comparison between PDs and their owners (3.75log10 and 5.25log10 CFUs; p < 0.05); the numbers were similar between ADs and their users (3.09log10 and 4.58log10 CFUs; p = 0.2). C. difficile was found on one (4%) AD user's shoe soles. Moreover, 81% of AD users had been denied access with their current AD once or several times, the main reason being hygiene. The results of the visibly and invisibly disabled were significantly different. The number of AD users as opposed to the total number of hospital visitors was 0.03% in one hospital and is estimated to be 0.02% in the Netherlands. (5) Conclusions: The general hygiene of dogs' paws is far better than that of shoe soles, mostly demonstrated by the better general hygiene of PD paws compared with their owners' shoe soles; ADs and their users had comparable levels of general hygiene. In addition, the number of AD users amongst the total number of hospital visitors in the Netherlands is very limited. Thus, hygiene measures to reduce any contamination due to dog paws do not seem necessary.

A One Health Perspective on the Human-Companion Animal Relationship with Emphasis on Zoonotic Aspects.

Over time the human-animal bond has been changed. For instance, the role of pets has changed from work animals (protecting houses, catching mice) to animals with a social function, giving companionship. Pets can be important for the physical and mental health of their owners but may also transmit zoonotic infections. The One Health initiative is a worldwide strategy for expanding collaborations in all aspects of health care for humans, animals, and the environment. However, in One Health communications the role of particularly dogs and cats is often underestimated. OBJECTIVE: Evaluation of positive and negative One Health issues of the human-companion animal relationship with a focus on zoonotic aspects of cats and dogs in industrialized countries. METHOD: Literature review. RESULTS: Pets undoubtedly have a positive effect on human health, while owners are increasing aware of pet's health and welfare. The changing attitude of humans with regard to pets and their environment can also lead to negative effects such as changes in feeding practices, extreme breeding, and behavioral problems, and anthropozoonoses. For the human, there may be a higher risk of the transmission of zoonotic infections due to trends such as sleeping with pets, allowing pets to lick the face or wounds, bite accidents, keeping exotic animals, the importation of rescue dogs, and soil contact. CONCLUSIONS: One Health issues need frequently re-evaluated as the close human-animal relationship with pet animals can totally differ compared to decennia ago. Because of the changed human-companion animal bond, recommendations regarding responsible pet-ownership, including normal hygienic practices, responsible breeding, feeding, housing, and mental and physical challenges conforming the biology of the animal are required. Education can be performed by vets and physicians as part of the One Health concept.

Zoonotic parasites in fecal samples and fur from dogs and cats in The Netherlands.

Pets may carry zoonotic pathogens for which owners are at risk. The aim of the study is to investigate whether healthy pets harbour zoonotic parasitic infections and to make an inventory of the interactions between pet-owners and their companion animals in The Netherlands. Fecal and hair samples were collected from healthy household dogs and cats in Dutch veterinary practices. Owners were interviewed about interaction with their pets. The samples were investigated by microscopy, ELISA, and PCR. From 159 households, 152 dogs (D) and 60 cats (C), information and samples were collected and examination for several zoonotic parasites was performed. Toxocara eggs were found in 4.4% (D) and 4.6% (C) of the fecal samples and in 12.2% (D) and 3.4% (C) of the fur samples. The median epg in the fur was 17 (D) and 28 (C) and none of these eggs were viable. From 15.2% of the dog and 13.6% of the cat feces Giardia was isolated. One canine and one feline Giardia isolate was a zoonotic assemblage A (12%). Cryptosporidium sp. were present in 8.7% (D) and 4.6% (C) of the feces. Fifty percent of the owners allow the pet to lick their faces. Sixty percent of the pets visit the bedroom; 45-60% (D-C) are allowed on the bed, and 18-30% (D-C) sleep with the owner in bed. Six percent of the pets always sleep in the bedroom. Of the cats, 45% are allowed to jump onto the kitchen sink. Nearly 39% of the dog owners never clean up the feces of their dog. Fifteen percent of the dog owners and 8% of the cat owners always wash their hands after contact with the animals. Close physical contact between owners and their pets is common and poses an increased risk of transmission of zoonotic pathogens. Education of owners by the vet, specifically about hygiene and potential risks, is required.

Awareness and control of canine leishmaniosis: A survey among Spanish and French veterinarians.

Zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (ZVL) is a parasitic disease affecting dogs and humans, which is transmitted by female sandflies. Over the last decade, disease prevalence has increased fivefold in parts of southern Europe, where an estimated 2.5 million dogs are infected. This increase is mainly due to an expansion in sandfly distribution due to climate change and to the greater numbers of dogs travelling among European countries. To combat the spread of ZVL in Europe, international guidelines have been drawn up that describe strategies to prevent, control and monitor the disease. To investigate whether these strategies are being implemented in the field, we conducted an online survey among veterinarians in Spain (endemic for ZVL) and France (south: emerging; north: non-endemic). Of the 889 respondents, 459 veterinarians completed all questions. Although 60% of all veterinarians were aware of the current ZVL increase in Europe, 70% were not familiar with any guidelines for controlling the disease. Most of their preventive and treatment actions were, however, in line with intervention strategies recommended by the guidelines. From the veterinarians in this survey, 76% had received no reports regarding confirmed cases of canine leishmaniosis (CanL) or human visceral leishmaniasis in their region or country. The fact that 88% of confirmed cases of clinical CanL were not reported suggests inadequate disease monitoring and evaluation. We therefore recommend that an easy-to-use and accessible international online network be developed, where both veterinarians and physicians can report confirmed cases of leishmaniosis in dogs and humans. This is crucial for monitoring, controlling and preventing the further spread of ZVL in Europe at regional, national and international level.

Zoonotic bacteria and parasites found in raw meat-based diets for cats and dogs.

Feeding raw meat-based diets (RMBDs) to companion animals has become increasingly popular. Since these diets may be contaminated with bacteria and parasites, they may pose a risk to both animal and human health. The purpose of this study was to test for the presence of zoonotic bacterial and parasitic pathogens in Dutch commercial RMBDs. We analysed 35 commercial frozen RMBDs from eight different brands. Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7 was isolated from eight products (23 per cent) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamases-producing E coli was found in 28 products (80 per cent). Listeria monocytogenes was present in 19 products (54 per cent), other Listeria species in 15 products (43 per cent) and Salmonella species in seven products (20 per cent). Concerning parasites, four products (11 per cent) contained Sarcocystis cruzi and another four (11 per cent) S tenella In two products (6 per cent) Toxoplasma gondii was found. The results of this study demonstrate the presence of potential zoonotic pathogens in frozen RMBDs that may be a possible source of bacterial infections in pet animals and if transmitted pose a risk for human beings. If non-frozen meat is fed, parasitic infections are also possible. Pet owners should therefore be informed about the risks associated with feeding their animals RMBDs.

Urban Dog Parks as Sources of Canine Parasites: Contamination Rates and Pet Owner Behaviours in Lisbon, Portugal.

Dog parks represent a recent trend in western countries, enabling owners to spend quality time with their pets in a controlled environment. Despite their growing popularity, few studies have been performed to date on these parks to investigate dog intestinal parasitic infections and soil contamination. The present study examined 369 faecal and 18 soil samples collected from 3 dog parks in Greater Lisbon, Portugal. Additionally, 102 interviews were performed with dog owners to assess dog-walking behaviours and parasite risk. In total, 33% of the faecal dog samples were infected with at least one parasitic agent: hookworms (16.5%), Cryptosporidium spp. (11.9%), Giardia spp. (11.4%), Toxascaris leonina (1.1%), Cystoisospora spp. (1.1%), Toxocara spp. (0.5%), and Sarcocystis sp. (0.3%). The soil of all the parks was contaminated with hookworm eggs. This is the first study performed in a European urban area to assess canine faecal contamination and parasitic agents in dog parks. Our results highlight the potential of these parks as a source of transmission for canine parasites, including some with zoonotic potential. Public awareness and effective preventive measures should be promoted to minimise the health-risk impact to both animals and humans, under the scope of environmental and public health.

Identification of Bartonella Species Isolated from Rodents from Yucatan, Mexico, and Isolation of Bartonella vinsonii subsp. yucatanensis subsp. nov.

Bartonella species are highly endemic among wild rodents in many parts of the world. Blood and/or blood clot cultures from 38 rodents, including 27 Yucatan deer mouse (Peromyscus yucatanicus), 7 Gaumer's spiny pocket mouse (Heteromys gaumeri), 2 black rats (Rattus rattus) and 2 big-eared climbing rats (Ototylomys phyllotis) captured near Merida, Yucatan, Mexico, led to the isolation in 3-4 days of small gram-negative bacilli, which were identified as Bartonella spp. based on colony morphology. DNA extraction and PCR testing were also performed from heart samples of 35 of these 38 rodents. Overall, Bartonella spp. were isolated from the blood/blood clots of 22 (58%) rodents. All Bartonella-positive rodents were Yucatán deer mice from San José Pituch. Sequencing of a fragment of the gltA gene showed that all but one rodent isolates were closest to B. vinsonii subsp. vinsonii and one isolate was intermediate between B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii and B. vinsonii subsp. arupensis. Further analysis of concatenated housekeeping genes (gltA, ftsZ, rpoB, and 16S rRNA) suggests that this outlier isolate is a new subspecies within the B. vinsonii genogroup, for which we proposed the name B. vinsonii subsp. yucatanensis.

Veterinary and public health aspects of Toxocara spp.

Pet dogs and cats can play an important role in the transmission of zoonotic nematodes such as Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati, by excreting eggs directly into the human environment, without the involvement of vectors or intermediate hosts. Human toxocarosis remains a hazard despite the availability of highly effective anthelmintics for dogs and cats. A good understanding of the biology and epidemiology of these parasites, and the risk factors that lead to their transmission to humans is required for effective prevention strategies. In this respect, the maintenance of high quality continuing education for veterinarians and the provision of suitably presented information to pet owners are of priority importance. A closer collaboration between veterinary and public health professionals within the 'One Health' concept is also required.

Role of pet dogs and cats in the transmission of helminthic zoonoses in Europe, with a focus on echinococcosis and toxocarosis.

The close emotional tie between people and companion animals is a beneficial relation known as the human-animal bond. However, pet dogs and cats can play an important role in the transmission of helminthic zoonotic agents such as the tapeworms Echinococcus and the roundworms Toxocara which are directly transmitted from pets to the human environment without the involvement of vectors or intermediate hosts. In humans, echinococcosis has emerged in Europe and toxocarosis is still persisting in large endemic areas despite the availability of highly efficient anthelminthics for dogs and cats. Ecological changes significantly contributed to these trends: the high wild fox populations and the high density of freely roaming dogs and cats maintain a permanent infection pressure of these and other parasites. Further, the establishment of urban recreational environments closer to natural ecological systems boosted vole populations that represent urban reservoirs for zoonotic helminths. A good understanding of the parasites' biology and epidemiology including the transmission to humans is required for planning and implementing effective prevention strategies. The continuous education of veterinarians and the information of the pet owners by providing uniform recommendations are of priority importance. A close collaboration between veterinary and public health professionals in a 'One Health' concept is required.

Absence of zoonotic Bartonella species in questing ticks: first detection of Bartonella clarridgeiae and Rickettsia felis in cat fleas in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: Awareness for flea- and tick-borne infections has grown in recent years and the range of microorganisms associated with these ectoparasites is rising. Bartonella henselae, the causative agent of Cat Scratch Disease, and other Bartonella species have been reported in fleas and ticks. The role of Ixodes ricinus ticks in the natural cycle of Bartonella spp. and the transmission of these bacteria to humans is unclear. Rickettsia spp. have also been reported from as well ticks as also from fleas. However, to date no flea-borne Rickettsia spp. were reported from the Netherlands. Here, the presence of Bartonellaceae and Rickettsiae in ectoparasites was investigated using molecular detection and identification on part of the gltA- and 16S rRNA-genes. RESULTS: The zoonotic Bartonella clarridgeiae and Rickettsia felis were detected for the first time in Dutch cat fleas. B. henselae was found in cat fleas and B. schoenbuchensis in ticks and keds feeding on deer. Two Bartonella species, previously identified in rodents, were found in wild mice and their fleas. However, none of these microorganisms were found in 1719 questing Ixodes ricinus ticks. Notably, the gltA gene amplified from DNA lysates of approximately 10% of the questing nymph and adult ticks was similar to that of an uncultured Bartonella-related species found in other hard tick species. The gltA gene of this Bartonella-related species was also detected in questing larvae for which a 16S rRNA gene PCR also tested positive for "Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii". The gltA-gene of the Bartonella-related species found in I. ricinus may therefore be from this endosymbiont. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the risk of acquiring Cat Scratch Disease or a related bartonellosis from questing ticks in the Netherlands is negligible. On the other hand fleas and deer keds are probable vectors for associated Bartonella species between animals and might also transmit Bartonella spp. to humans.