Stabilization of 14-3-3 protein-protein interactions with Fusicoccin-A decreases alpha-synuclein dependent cell-autonomous death in neuronal and mouse models.

Synucleinopathies are a group of neurodegenerative diseases without effective treatment characterized by the abnormal aggregation of alpha-synuclein (aSyn) protein. Changes in levels or in the amino acid sequence of aSyn (by duplication/triplication of the aSyn gene or point mutations in the encoding region) cause familial cases of synucleinopathies. However, the specific molecular mechanisms of aSyn-dependent toxicity remain unclear. Increased aSyn protein levels or pathological mutations may favor abnormal protein-protein interactions (PPIs) that could either promote neuronal death or belong to a coping response program against neurotoxicity. Therefore, the identification and modulation of aSyn-dependent PPIs can provide new therapeutic targets for these diseases. To identify aSyn-dependent PPIs we performed a proximity biotinylation assay based on the promiscuous biotinylase BioID2. When expressed as a fusion protein, BioID2 biotinylates by proximity stable and transient interacting partners, allowing their identification by streptavidin affinity purification and mass spectrometry. The aSyn interactome was analyzed using BioID2-tagged wild-type (WT) and pathological mutant E46K aSyn versions in HEK293 cells. We found the 14-3-3 epsilon isoform as a common protein interactor for WT and E46K aSyn. 14-3-3 epsilon correlates with aSyn protein levels in brain regions of a transgenic mouse model overexpressing WT human aSyn. Using a neuronal model in which aSyn cell-autonomous toxicity is quantitatively scored by longitudinal survival analysis, we found that stabilization of 14-3-3 protein-proteins interactions with Fusicoccin-A (FC-A) decreases aSyn-dependent toxicity. Furthermore, FC-A treatment protects dopaminergic neuronal somas in the substantia nigra of a Parkinson's disease mouse model. Based on these results, we propose that the stabilization of 14-3-3 epsilon interaction with aSyn might reduce aSyn toxicity, and highlight FC-A as a potential therapeutic compound for synucleinopathies.

The Cognitive Improvement and Alleviation of Brain Hypermetabolism Caused by FFAR3 Ablation in Tg2576 Mice Is Persistent under Diet-Induced Obesity.

Obesity and aging are becoming increasingly prevalent across the globe. It has been established that aging is the major risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), and it is becoming increasingly evident that obesity and the associated insulin resistance are also notably relevant risk factors. The biological plausibility of the link between high adiposity, insulin resistance, and dementia is central for understanding AD etiology, and to form bases for prevention efforts to decrease the disease burden. Several studies have demonstrated a strong association between short chain fatty acid receptor FFAR3 and insulin sensitivity. Interestingly, it has been recently established that FFAR3 mRNA levels are increased in early stages of the AD pathology, indicating that FFAR3 could play a key role in AD onset and progression. Indeed, in the present study we demonstrate that the ablation of the Ffar3 gene in Tg2576 mice prevents the development of cognitive deficiencies in advanced stages of the disease. Notably, this cognitive improvement is also maintained upon a severe metabolic challenge such as the exposure to high-fat diet (HFD) feeding. Moreover, FFAR3 deletion restores the brain hypermetabolism displayed by Tg2576 mice. Collectively, these data postulate FFAR3 as a potential novel target for AD.

Genetic Inactivation of Free Fatty Acid Receptor 3 Impedes Behavioral Deficits and Pathological Hallmarks in the APPswe Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model.

The free fatty acid FFA3 receptor (FFA3R) belongs to the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). In the intestine and adipose tissue, it is involved in the regulation of energy metabolism, but its function in the brain is unknown. We aimed, first, to investigate the expression of the receptor in the hippocampus of Alzheimer disease (AD) patients at different stages of the disease and, second, to assess whether genetic inactivation of the Ffar3 gene could affect the phenotypic features of the APPswe mouse model. The expression of transcripts for FFA receptors in postmortem human hippocampal samples and in the hippocampus of wild-type and transgenic mice was analyzed by RT-qPCR. We generated a double transgenic mouse, FFA3R-/-/APPswe, to perform cognition studies and to assess, by immunoblotting Aß and tau pathologies and the differential expression of synaptic plasticity-related proteins. For the first time, the occurrence of the FFA3R in the human hippocampus and its overexpression, even in the first stages of AD, was demonstrated. Remarkably, FFA3R-/-/APPswe mice do not have the characteristic memory impairment of 12-month-old APPswe mice. Additionally, this newly generated transgenic line does not develop the most important Alzheimer's disease (AD)-related features, such as amyloid beta (Aß) brain accumulations and tau hyperphosphorylation. These findings are accompanied by increased levels of the insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) and lower activity of the tau kinases GSK3ß and Cdk5. We conclude that the brain FFA3R is involved in cognitive processes and that its inactivation prevents AD-like cognitive decline and pathological hallmarks.

Identifying the Main Functional Pathways Associated with Cognitive Resilience to Alzheimer's Disease.

Understanding the mechanisms involved in cognitive resilience in Alzheimer's disease (AD) represents a promising strategy to identify novel treatments for dementia in AD. Previous findings from our group revealed that the study of aged-Tg2576 cognitive resilient individuals is a suitable tool for this purpose. In the present study, we performed a transcriptomic analysis using the prefrontal cortex of demented and resilient Tg2576 transgenic AD mice. We have been able to hypothesize that pathways involved in inflammation, amyloid degradation, memory function, and neurotransmission may be playing a role on cognitive resilience in AD. Intriguingly, the results obtained in this study are suggestive of a reduction of the influx of peripheral immune cells into the brain on cognitive resilient subjects. Indeed, CD4 mRNA expression is significantly reduced on Tg2576 mice with cognitive resilience. For further validation of this result, we analyzed CD4 expression in human AD samples, including temporal cortex and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Interestingly, we have found a negative correlation between CD4 mRNA levels in the periphery and the score in the Mini-Mental State Exam of AD patients. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the role of the immune system on the development of neurodegenerative diseases and points out to the infiltration of CD4+ cells in the brain as a key player of cognitive dysfunction in AD.

Smelling the Dark Proteome: Functional Characterization of PITH Domain-Containing Protein 1 (C1orf128) in Olfactory Metabolism.

The Human Proteome Project (HPP) consortium aims to functionally characterize the dark proteome. On the basis of the relevance of olfaction in early neurodegeneration, we have analyzed the dark proteome using data mining in public resources and omics data sets derived from the human olfactory system. Multiple dark proteins localize at synaptic terminals and may be involved in amyloidopathies such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have characterized the dark PITH domain-containing protein 1 (PITHD1) in olfactory metabolism using bioinformatics, proteomics, in vitro and in vivo studies, and neuropathology. PITHD1-/- mice exhibit olfactory bulb (OB) proteome changes related to synaptic transmission, cognition, and memory. OB PITHD1 expression increases with age in wild-type (WT) mice and decreases in Tg2576 AD mice at late stages. The analysis across 6 neurological disorders reveals that olfactory tract (OT) PITHD1 is specifically upregulated in human AD. Stimulation of olfactory neuroepithelial (ON) cells with PITHD1 alters the ON phosphoproteome, modifies the proliferation rate, and induces a pro-inflammatory phenotype. This workflow applied by the Spanish C-HPP and Human Brain Proteome Project (HBPP) teams across the ON-OB-OT axis can be adapted as a guidance to decipher functional features of dark proteins. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifiers PXD018784 and PXD021634.

Network-Driven Proteogenomics Unveils an Aging-Related Imbalance in the Olfactory IκBα-NFκB p65 Complex Functionality in Tg2576 Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model.

Olfaction is often deregulated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, and is also impaired in transgenic Tg2576 AD mice, which overexpress the Swedish mutated form of human amyloid precursor protein (APP). However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that accompany the neurodegeneration of olfactory structures in aged Tg2576 mice. For that, we have applied proteome- and transcriptome-wide approaches to probe molecular disturbances in the olfactory bulb (OB) dissected from aged Tg2576 mice (18 months of age) as compared to those of age matched wild-type (WT) littermates. Some over-represented biological functions were directly relevant to neuronal homeostasis and processes of learning, cognition, and behavior. In addition to the modulation of CAMP responsive element binding protein 1 (CREB1) and APP interactomes, an imbalance in the functionality of the IκBα-NFκB p65 complex was observed during the aging process in the OB of Tg2576 mice. At two months of age, the phosphorylated isoforms of olfactory IκBα and NFκB p65 were inversely regulated in transgenic mice. However, both phosphorylated proteins were increased at 6 months of age, while a specific drop in IκBα levels was detected in 18-month-old Tg2576 mice, suggesting a transient activation of NFκB in the OB of Tg2576 mice. Taken together, our data provide a metabolic map of olfactory alterations in aged Tg2576 mice, reflecting the progressive effect of APP overproduction and ß-amyloid (Aß) accumulation on the OB homeostasis in aged stages.

GPR40 activation leads to CREB and ERK phosphorylation in primary cultures of neurons from the mouse CNS and in human neuroblastoma cells.

GPR40, the free fatty acid receptor 1, is expressed strongly in the primate pancreas and brain. While the role of pancreatic GPR40 in glucose homeostasis has been extensively studied, the absence of this G-protein-coupled receptor from the brain of rodents has hampered studies into its role in the central nervous system. However, we found intense GPR40 mRNA expression by in situ hybridization in mouse hippocampal and motor cortex neurons. Furthermore, in a neuroblastoma cell GPR40 was activated by docosahexaenoic acid and selective agonists, yet not by palmitic acid. Significantly, the activation of GPR40 provoked the phosphorylation of the cAMP response element-binding protein, CREB. The receptor was also functional in primary cultures of murine neurons, in which its activation by a selective agonist produced the phosphorylation of CREB and of extracellular signal-regulated kinases, ERK1/2. These results suggest that mice represent a suitable model for elucidating the role of GPR40 in brain function.

Accelerated aging of the GABAergic septohippocampal pathway and decreased hippocampal rhythms in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) display altered functioning of cortical networks, including altered patterns of synchronous activity and a serious deficit in cholinergic septohippocampal (SH) innervation. However, the mechanisms underlying these alterations and the implication of the GABAergic SH component in AD are largely unknown. In addition, the GABAergic septohippocampal pathway (SHP) is believed to regulate synchronous hippocampal activity by controlling the activity of interneurons. Here we show, using well-characterized pathway tracing experiments, that innervation of the GABAergic SHP decreases during normal aging. Furthermore, in an AD mouse model (hAPP(Sw,Ind); J20 mice), the GABAergic SHP shows a dramatic and early onset of this decrease in 8-mo-old mice. This decline is not caused by neuronal loss, but by the reduced number and complexity of GABAergic SH axon terminals. Finally, we demonstrate that hippocampal θ and γ rhythm power spectra are markedly diminished in 8-mo-old behaving mice expressing mutated hAPP. In addition to the well-known loss of cholinergic input to the hippocampus in AD, these data suggest that the altered patterns of synchronous activity seen in patients with AD could be caused by the loss of GABAergic SH axons, which modulate hippocampal network activities.

Reversal of Object Recognition Memory Deficit in Perirhinal Cortex-Lesioned Rats and Primates and in Rodent Models of Aging and Alzheimer's Diseases.

The integrity of the perirhinal cortex (PRh) is essential for object recognition memory (ORM) function, and damage to this brain area in animals and humans induces irreversible ORM deficits. Here, we show that activation of area V2, a brain area interconnected with brain circuits of ventral stream and medial temporal lobe that sustain ORM, by expression of regulator of G-protein signaling 14 of 414 amino acids (RGS14414) restored ORM in memory-deficient PRh-lesioned rats and nonhuman primates. Furthermore, this treatment was sufficient for full recovery of ORM in rodent models of aging and Alzheimer's disease, conditions thought to affect multiple brain areas. Thus, RGS14414-mediated activation of area V2 has therapeutic relevance in the recovery of recognition memory, a type of memory that is primarily affected in patients or individuals with symptoms of memory dysfunction. These findings suggest that area V2 modulates the processing of memory-related information through activation of interconnected brain circuits formed by the participation of distinct brain areas.

Overexpression of wild-type human APP in mice causes cognitive deficits and pathological features unrelated to Abeta levels.

Transgenic mice expressing mutant human amyloid precursor protein (APP) develop an age-dependent amyloid pathology and memory deficits, but no overt neuronal loss. Here, in mice overexpressing wild-type human APP (hAPP(wt)) we found an early memory impairment, particularly in the water maze and to a lesser extent in the object recognition task, but beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta(42)) was barely detectable in the hippocampus. In these mice, hAPP processing was basically non-amyloidogenic, with high levels of APP carboxy-terminal fragments, C83 and APP intracellular domain. A tau pathology with an early increase in the levels of phosphorylated tau in the hippocampus, a likely consequence of enhanced ERK1/2 activation, was also observed. Furthermore, these mice presented a loss of synapse-associated proteins: PSD95, AMPA and NMDA receptor subunits and phosphorylated CaMKII. Importantly, signs of neurodegeneration were found in the hippocampal CA1 subfield and in the entorhinal cortex that were associated to a marked loss of MAP2 immunoreactivity. Conversely, in mice expressing mutant hAPP, high levels of Abeta(42) were found in the hippocampus, but no signs of neurodegeneration were apparent. The results support the notion of Abeta-independent pathogenic pathways in Alzheimer's disease.

Rosiglitazone reverses memory decline and hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor down-regulation in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model.

Clinical trials with rosiglitazone, a potent agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) suggest an improvement of cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. The mechanisms mediating this potential beneficial effect remain to be fully elucidated. In mice overexpressing mutant human amyloid precursor protein (hAPP), a model of AD, we found that memory impairment in the object recognition test was prevented and also reversed by chronic rosiglitazone treatment. Given the possible involvement of glucocorticoid receptors (GR) in the actions of PPARgamma-ligands, we studied the effect of chronic rosiglitazone treatment on GR levels in the hippocampus of hAPP mice. An early down-regulation of GR, not related to elevated plasma corticosterone levels, was found in different hippocampal subfields of the transgenic mice and this decrease was prevented by rosiglitazone. In parallel with behavioural studies, rosiglitazone also normalized GR levels in older animals. This effect may contribute to explain the attenuation of memory decline by PPARgamma activation in an AD mouse model.

Early-Onset Molecular Derangements in the Olfactory Bulb of Tg2576 Mice: Novel Insights Into the Stress-Responsive Olfactory Kinase Dynamics in Alzheimer's Disease.

The olfactory bulb (OB) is the first processing station in the olfactory pathway. Despite smell impairment, which is considered an early event in Alzheimer's disease (AD), little is known about the initial molecular disturbances that accompany the AD development at olfactory level. We have interrogated the time-dependent OB molecular landscape in Tg2576 AD mice prior to the appearance of neuropathological amyloid plaques (2-, and 6-month-old), using combinatorial omics analysis. The metabolic modulation induced by overproduction of human mutated amyloid precursor protein (APP) clearly differs between both time points. Besides the progressive perturbation of the APP interactome, functional network analysis unveiled an inverse regulation of downstream extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2), and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) routes in 2-month-old Tg2576 mice with respect to wild-type (WT) mice. In contrast, Akt and MAPK kinase 4 (SEK1)/ stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK) axis were parallel activated in the OB of 6-months-old-Tg2576 mice. Furthermore, a survival kinome profiling performed during the aging process (2-, 6-, and 18-month-old) revealed that olfactory APP overexpression leads to changes in the activation dynamics of protein kinase A (PKA), and SEK1/MKK4-SAPK/JNK between 6 and 18 months of age, when memory deficits appear and AD pathology is well established in transgenic mice. Interestingly, both olfactory pathways were differentially activated in a stage-dependent manner in human sporadic AD subjects with different neuropathological grading. Taken together, our data reflect the early impact of mutated APP on the OB molecular homeostasis, highlighting the progressive modulation of specific signaling pathways during the olfactory amyloidogenic pathology.

Maternal imprinting on cognition markers of wild type and transgenic Alzheimer's disease model mice.

The risk of suffering from Alzheimer's disease (AD) is higher in individuals from AD-affected mothers. The purpose of this investigation was to study whether maternal transmission might produce AD-related alterations in progenies of mice that do not have any genotypic alteration. We used cognitively-intact mothers harbouring in heterozygosity the transgene for overexpressing the Swedish double mutant version of the human amyloid precursor protein (hAßPPswe). The phenotype of the offspring with or without the transgene resulting from crossing young Tg2576 females with wild-type males were compared with those of the offspring resulting from crossing wild-type females with Tg2576 males. The hAßPPswe-bearing offspring from Tg2576 mothers showed an aggravated AD-like phenotype. Remarkably, cognitive, immunohistochemical and some biochemical features displayed by Tg2576 heterozygous mice were also found in wild-type animals generated from Tg2576 females. This suggests the existence of a maternal imprinting in the wild-type offspring that confers a greater facility to launch an AD-like neurodegenerative cascade. Such progeny, lacking any mutant amyloid precursor protein, constitutes a novel model to study maternal transmission of AD and, even more important, to discover early risk markers that predispose to the development of AD.

Limited Unfolded Protein Response and Inflammation in Neuroserpinopathy.

Familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies (FENIB) is a rare disease characterized by the deposition of multiple intracytoplasmic neuronal inclusions that contain mutated neuroserpin. Tg-Syracuse (Tg-Syr) mice express Ser49Pro mutated neuroserpin and develop clinical and neuropathological features of human FENIB. We used 8-, 34-, 45- and 80-week-old Tg-Syr mice to characterize neuroinflammation and the unfolded protein response (UPR) in a neurodegenerative disease in which abnormal protein aggregates accumulate within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). There were scattered neuroserpin inclusions in Tg-Syr mice at 8 weeks of age; the numbers of neurons involved and the amount of neuroserpin per neuron increased with age throughout the CNS to 80 weeks of age; no similar inclusions were found in wild type (Tg-WT) mice at any age. Increases in numbers of astrocytes and microglia occurred at advanced disease stages. Among 22 markers in 80-week-old Tg-Syr mice, only II1b and II10rb mRNAs in the somatosensory cortex and CxCl10 and Il10rb mRNAs in the olfactory bulb were upregulated when compared with Tg-WT mice indicating a limited relationship between neuroserpin inclusions and inflammatory responses. The changes were accompanied by a transient increase in expression of Xbp1 spliced at 45 weeks and increased ERdJ4 mRNAs at 80 weeks. The sequestration of UPR activators GRP78 and GRP94 in neuroserpin inclusions might explain the limited UPR responses despite the accumulation of neuroserpin in the ER in this FENIB mouse model.

Expression of the glucose transporter GLUT12 in Alzheimer's disease patients.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) might be conceptualized as a metabolic disease with progressive impairment of the brain's capacity to utilize glucose. One of the last glucose transporters discovered is GLUT12. The aim of the present work was to investigate the expression of GLUT12 in frontal cortex from AD patients. Human samples from young control donors barely expressed GLUT12. The level of expression of GLUT12 was significantly higher in AD compare to aged controls. Expression of GLUT12 and Ox-42, a microglia marker, correlate in controls but not in AD. The implications of these findings in AD are discussed further.

Phenyl acyl acids attenuate the unfolded protein response in tunicamycin-treated neuroblastoma cells.

Understanding how neural cells handle proteostasis stress in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is important to decipher the mechanisms that underlie the cell death associated with neurodegenerative diseases and to design appropriate therapeutic tools. Here we have compared the sensitivity of a human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5H) to the ER stress caused by an inhibitor of protein glycosylation with that observed in human embryonic kidney (HEK-293T) cells. In response to stress, SH-SY5H cells increase the expression of mRNA encoding downstream effectors of ER stress sensors and transcription factors related to the unfolded protein response (the spliced X-box binding protein 1, CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein homologous protein, endoplasmic reticulum-localized DnaJ homologue 4 and asparagine synthetase). Tunicamycin-induced death of SH-SY5H cells was prevented by terminal aromatic substituted butyric or valeric acids, in association with a decrease in the mRNA expression of stress-related factors, and in the accumulation of the ATF4 protein. Interestingly, this decrease in ATF4 protein occurs without modifying the phosphorylation of the translation initiation factor eIF2α. Together, these results show that when short chain phenyl acyl acids alleviate ER stress in SH-SY5H cells their survival is enhanced.

Age-related mitochondrial alterations without neuronal loss in the hippocampus of a transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease.

The Tg2576 mouse, which carries the Swedish mutant form of human ß-amyloid precursor protein (hAPP(swe)), develops Alzheimer's Disease (AD)-like phenotype (synaptic pathology, cognitive impairment and ß amyloid -Aß- plaques.) in the absence of significant neuronal loss. We have analyzed the hippocampal proteome of Tg2576, focusing on changes at 7 months of age, when Aß levels begin to increase but cognitive symptoms are still not evident, and at 16 months, when most AD-like features are manifested. Proteins differentially expressed with respect to wild-type animals were grouped according to their biological function and assessed in the context of AD. Metabolic enzymes, propionyl- CoA carboxylase, which has not been previously related to AD, and glutamine synthetase, which is a key enzyme for ammonium removal, were among deregulated proteins. Mitochondria of young animals have to cope with the metabolic stress and elevated ATP demand caused by overexpression of hAPP(swe). Significantly, a large number of mitochondrial proteins (16, 28% of the total) were deregulated in young Tg2576 mice and seven of them were found at normal levels in aged animals. Mitochondrial dysfunction in 7-month-old mice was confirmed by reduction in the inner membrane integrity and increase in the activity of cytochrome c oxidase. The proteome analysis indicates that mitochondrial and overlapping metabolic alterations are adaptive upon aging, and may explain the synaptic pathology and cognitive impairment in the absence of neuronal loss. Animal models such as 7-month-old Tg2576 mice and tools to investigate synaptic alterations before appearance of neuronal death may help in understanding the pathological mechanisms occurring at early stages of AD.

Chronic mild stress accelerates the onset and progression of the Alzheimer's disease phenotype in Tg2576 mice.

The etiology of the more common (sporadic) forms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains unknown, although age is the most important risk factor. Nevertheless, interactions between environmental risk factors and genetic background may also influence the onset and progression of sporadic AD. Chronic stress, associated with altered memory and other neurological processes, is thought to influence the pathogenesis of AD. Hence, we evaluated the effect of unpredictable and consecutive chronic mild stressors on the onset of an AD-related pathology in the Tg2576 mouse line that overexpresses the human amyloid-ß protein precursor with the Swedish mutation (hAßPP(Swe)). Two months after exposure to chronic mild stress, 4 month-old animals that normally display no pathological features of AD, not only expressed pathological markers but also experienced cognitive dysfunction in the Morris water maze test. These findings suggest that chronic mild stress accelerates the onset of cognitive impairment and produces an increase in hippocampal amyloid-ß and phospho-tau levels on a background of AD susceptibility.

Enhanced expression of the voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) in Alzheimer's disease transgenic mice: an insight into the pathogenic effects of amyloid-ß.

The mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) is involved in the release of apoptotic proteins with possible relevance in Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathology. Through proteomic analysis followed by Western blotting and immunohistochemical techniques, we have found that VDAC1 is overexpressed in the hippocampus from amyloidogenic AD transgenic mice models. VDAC1 was also overexpressed in postmortem brain tissue from AD patients at an advanced stage of the disease. Interestingly, amyloid-ß (Aß) soluble oligomers were able to induce upregulation of VDAC1 in a human neuroblastoma cell line, further supporting a correlation between Aß levels and VDAC1 expression. In hippocampal extracts from transgenic mice, a significant increase was observed in the levels of VDAC1 phosphorylated at an epitope that is susceptible to phosphorylation by glycogen synthase kinase-3ß, whose activity was also increased. The levels of hexokinase I (HXKI), which interacts with VDAC1 and affects its function, were decreased in mitochondrial samples from AD models. Since phospho-VDAC and reduced HXKI levels favors a VDAC1 conformational state more prone to the release proapoptotic factors, regulation of the function of this channel may be a promising therapeutic approach to combat AD.

Chronic mild stress in mice promotes cognitive impairment and CDK5-dependent tau hyperphosphorylation.

This study was undertaken to know whether cognition deficits produced by chronic mild stress (CMS) were associated with pathological markers of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The results show that the impairment in the Morris water maze test induced by CMS correlated with an increase in CDK5-dependent phospho-tau levels and with an increase in APP processing. Mice exposed to CMS may then constitute a non-transgenic model for sporadic forms of AD.