CLINICAL ASSOCIATIONS AND PROGNOSTIC IMPLICATIONS OF REPAIR TISSUE PROLIFERATION IN EYES WITH RETINAL PIGMENT EPITHELIUM TEARS.

PURPOSE: To investigate demographic and clinical factors influencing the longitudinal changes of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) dehiscence area after RPE tears, including the presence of RPE tear-associated repair proliferation (TARP), and identify factors associated with TARP development over follow-up. METHODS: Retrospective, single-center, observational cohort study of patients with a history of macular neovascularization and RPE tear. The area of RPE dehiscence was measured on repeated short-wavelength fundus autofluorescence imaging. Associations between covariates and RPE dehiscence areas were tested with multivariable linear mixed models. Associations between TARP development and clinical variables were investigated with Cox regression models. Factors associated with visual acuity changing rates were explored with linear mixed models. RESULTS: Thirty-seven eyes of 36 patients were included in this study and followed for a median time of 18 months. Tear-associated repair proliferation was identified in 27 eyes (73%). The median time for TARP detection was 112 days; none of the investigated factors was significantly associated with TARP occurrence. The presence of TARP (estimate: -0.042 mm2/month; P = 0.001) and female gender (estimate: -0.035 mm2/month; P = 0.006) were associated with slower rates of RPE dehiscence enlargement over time. Faster rates of visual improvement were observed in eyes with TARP compared with those without TARP (estimate = -0.010 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution/month if TARP was present; P = 0.008). CONCLUSION: Retinal pigment epithelium tear repair with TARP and female gender were associated with slower RPE degeneration after RPE tears. The presence of TARP was associated better visual prognosis. Additional research on factors promoting TARP development may have therapeutic and prognostic implications.

QUANTITATIVE OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY ANGIOGRAPHY PARAMETER VARIATIONS AFTER TREATMENT OF MACULAR NEOVASCULARIZATION SECONDARY TO AGE-RELATED MACULAR DEGENERATION.

PURPOSE: Macular neovascularization (MNV) secondary to age-related macular degeneration can be characterized by quantitative optical coherence tomography angiography. The aim of the study was to assess the evolution of quantitative optical coherence tomography angiography parameters after 1 year of antivascular endothelial growth factor injections. METHODS: Naive age-related macular degeneration-related MNV eyes were prospectively recruited to analyze optical coherence tomography and optical coherence tomography angiography parameters, including MNV vessel tortuosity (VT) and reflectivity, at baseline and at the end of the follow-up. Macular neovascularization eyes were categorized by a MNV VT cutoff, and quantitative parameter variations were documented after 1 year of treatment. We divided MNV eyes into Group 1 (MNV VT < 8.40) and Group 2 (MNV VT > 8.40). RESULTS: Thrity naive age-related macular degeneration-related MNV eyes (30 patients) were included. Our cohort included 18 Type 1 MNV and 12 Type 2 MNV lesions. Baseline central macular thickness (411 ± 85 µm) improved to 323 ± 54 µm at 1 year (P < 0.01). Only Group 1 MNV displayed significant visual improvement. Macular neovascularization VT values remained stable over the follow-up in both subgroups. Group 2 MNV eyes showed increased MNV reflectivity and increased MNV area at the end of the follow-up. Quantitative retinal capillary plexa parameters were found to be worse in Group 2 MNV. Outer retinal atrophy occurred in 2 of the 18 eyes in MNV Group 1 (11%) and in 6 of the 12 eyes in MNV Group 2 (50%) after 1 year. Vessel density proved to be always worse in Group 2 than in Group 1. CONCLUSION: Macular neovascularization VT provides information on the blood flow and identifies two subgroups with different final anatomical and visual outcomes, regardless of the treatment effect.

Laser treatment of drusen to prevent progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration.

BACKGROUND: Drusen are amorphous yellowish deposits beneath the sensory retina. People with drusen, particularly large drusen, are at higher risk of developing age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The most common complication in AMD is choroidal neovascularisation (CNV), the growth of new blood vessels in the centre of the macula. The risk of CNV is higher among people who are already affected by CNV in one eye.It has been observed clinically that laser photocoagulation of drusen leads to their disappearance and may prevent the occurrence of advanced disease (CNV or geographic atrophy) associated with visual loss. OBJECTIVES: To examine the effectiveness and adverse effects of laser photocoagulation of drusen in AMD. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL (which contains the Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group Trials Register) (2015, Issue 7), Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid MEDLINE In-Process and Other Non-Indexed Citations, Ovid MEDLINE Daily, Ovid OLDMEDLINE (January 1946 to August 2015), EMBASE (January 1980 to August 2015), Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature Database (LILACS) (January 1982 to August 2015), the ISRCTN registry (www.isrctn.com/editAdvancedSearch), ClinicalTrials.gov (www.clinicaltrials.gov) and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) (www.who.int/ictrp/search/en). We did not use any date or language restrictions in the electronic searches for trials. We last searched the electronic databases on 3 August 2015. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of laser treatment of drusen in AMD in which laser treatment had been compared with no intervention or sham treatment. Two types of trials were included. Some trials studied one eye of each participant (unilateral studies); other studies recruited participants with bilateral drusen and randomised one eye to photocoagulation or control and the fellow eye to the other group. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently selected studies and extracted data. We pooled data from unilateral and bilateral studies using a random-effects model. For the bilateral studies, we estimated the within-person correlation coefficient from one study and assumed it was valid for the others. MAIN RESULTS: The update of this review found two additional studies, totaling 11 studies that randomised 2159 participants (3580 eyes) and followed them up to two years, of which six studies (1454 participants) included people with one eye randomised to treatment and one to control. Studies were conducted in Australia, Europe and North America.Overall, the risk of bias in the included studies was low, particularly for the larger studies and for the primary outcome development of CNV. Photocoagulation did not reduce the development of CNV at two years' follow-up (odds ratio (OR) 1.07, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.79 to 1.46, 11 studies, 2159 participants (3580 eyes), high quality evidence). This estimate means that, given an overall occurrence of CNV of 8.3% in the control group, we estimated an absolute risk reduction by no more than 1.4% in the laser group, according to the lower CI limit. Only two studies investigated the effect on the development of geographic atrophy and could not show a difference, but estimates were imprecise (OR 1.30, 95% CI 0.38 to 4.51, two studies, 148 participants (148 eyes), low quality evidence).Among secondary outcomes, photocoagulation led to drusen reduction (OR 9.16, 95% CI 6.28 to 13.4, three studies, 570 participants (944 eyes), high quality evidence) but was not shown to limit loss of 3 or more lines of visual acuity (OR 0.99, 95% CI 0.81 to 1.22, nine studies, 2002 participants (2386 eyes), moderate quality evidence).In a subgroup analysis, no difference could be shown for conventional visible (eight studies) versus subthreshold invisible (four studies) photocoagulation for the primary outcomes (P value = 0.29). The effect in the subthreshold group did not suggest a relevant benefit (OR 1.27, 95% CI 0.82 to 1.98). No study used micropulse subthreshold photocoagulation.No other adverse effects (apart from development of CNV, geographic atrophy or visual loss) were reported. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The trials included in this review confirm the clinical observation that laser photocoagulation of drusen leads to their disappearance. However, treatment does not result in a reduction in the risk of developing CNV, and was not shown to limit the occurrence of geographic atrophy or visual acuity loss.Ongoing studies are being conducted to assess whether the use of extremely short laser pulses (i.e. nanosecond laser treatment) cannot only lead to drusen regression but also prevent neovascular AMD.

DEXAMETHASONE IMPLANT FOR MACULAR EDEMA SECONDARY TO ISCHEMIC RETINAL VEIN OCCLUSIONS.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effects of dexamethasone implant for the treatment of macular edema secondary to ischemic retinal vein occlusions (IRVO). METHODS: Consecutive patients affected by macular edema related to IRVO were prospectively recruited. After a comprehensive ophthalmological examination, including visual acuity, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography, each patient received a first implant. Further re-treatments were performed on the basis of macular edema detection from the fourth month on. The primary outcome measure was the change in Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study letter score at the 12-month examination. Secondary outcome measures included changes in central foveal thickness and number of implants over the follow-up. RESULTS: Fifteen patients with central IRVO and 14 patients with branch IRVO were recruited. The median ETDRS letter score at baseline was 10 (Snellen Equivalent 20/640) in the central IRVO subgroup, improving to 37 (Snellen Equivalent 20/200²âº) at the 12-month examination. The median ETDRS letter score in the branch retinal vein occlusion subgroup changed from 48 (Snellen equivalent 20/125³âº) at baseline to 62 (Snellen equivalent 20/63²âº) at the 12-month examination. The baseline median central foveal thickness was 749 µm in central IRVO, and 459 µm in branch IRVO, improving to 363 µm and 323 µm, respectively, at the 12-month examination. Mean number of implants was 2.8 in the central IRVO and 2 in the branch IRVO. CONCLUSION: Dexamethasone implant can reduce macular edema in eyes affected by IRVO, leading to a slight improvement in visual acuity.

Intravitreal ranibizumab for choroidal neovascularization with large submacular hemorrhage in age-related macular degeneration.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effects of intravitreal ranibizumab injections in the treatment of choroidal neovascularization with large submacular hemorrhage secondary to age-related macular degeneration. METHODS: Prospective interventional case series. Patients presenting occult choroidal neovascularization with flat large submacular hemorrhage >50% of the entire lesion were considered. The protocol required 3 monthly consecutive injections, followed by repeat injections over the 12-month follow-up on the basis of optical coherence tomography parameters and angiographic features. RESULTS: Twenty-three patients were enrolled in the study and prospectively followed up. Mean best-corrected visual acuity and mean central macular thickness at the baseline were 0.82 ± 0.22 (logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution ± standard deviation) and 342 ± 56 µm, respectively. At 12-month examination, mean visual acuity improved significantly to 0.68 ± 0.41 (P = 0.04), and mean central macular thickness decreased to 236 ± 26 µm (P < 0.0001). A progressive resolution of macular bleeding was registered in 22 of 23 patients. No side effect or complication was registered. CONCLUSION: Intravitreal ranibizumab can be considered a beneficial approach for the management of choroidal neovascularization with flat large submacular hemorrhage secondary to age-related macular degeneration.

Intravitreal ranibizumab for naive extrafoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration.

PURPOSE: To investigate the effect of intravitreal ranibizumab on extrafoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration. METHODS: Eighteen eyes affected by extrafoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration were prospectively enrolled in this study. After an initial intravitreal ranibizumab, all patients were reevaluated monthly over 12 months of follow-up. Further retreatments were performed on a pro re nata basis, depending on detection of any type of fluid on optical coherence tomography and/or the presence of leakage on fluorescein angiography. Primary outcome measures were mean changes in best-corrected visual acuity and the proportion of eyes gaining at least 15 letters (3 Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study [ETDRS] lines) at the end of the follow-up. Secondary outcome measures were central macular thickness variations and changes in choroidal neovascularization size. RESULTS: Mean best-corrected visual acuity presented a significant improvement during the follow-up period, being 0.3 ± 0.2 logMAR at baseline and 0.2 ± 0.2 logMAR at the 12-month examination (P < 0.001). An improvement of at least 3 EDTRS lines was achieved by 6 eyes (33.3%), whereas 6 patients (33.3%) gained 1 to 2 lines. The mean central macular thickness at baseline was 314 ± 87 µm, changing to 268 ± 65 µm at the 12-month examination (P = 0.003). The mean lesion size was 1.4 ± 1.4 mm and remained stable throughout the follow-up, being 1.8 ± 2.9 mm at 12 months (P = 0.64). CONCLUSION: Intravitreal ranibizumab administered after a pro re nata regimen with monthly evaluation is a beneficial approach for the management of extrafoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration over 12 months of follow-up. Further studies are warranted to confirm our preliminary results.

Intravitreal bevacizumab for extrafoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to pathologic myopia.

PURPOSE: To assess the effects of intravitreal bevacizumab injections in the treatment of extrafoveal choroidal neovascularization (CNV) associated with pathologic myopia. METHODS: Patients diagnosed with pathologic myopia complicated by extrafoveal CNV were considered in this prospective, open-label interventional study. All patients underwent a complete ophthalmologic examination, including Early Treatment Early of Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) visual acuity measurement, optical coherence tomography, and fluorescein angiography. The protocol treatment included a first injection, followed by repeated injections over a 24-month follow-up period on the basis of optical coherence tomography and angiographic features, monitored monthly. Primary outcomes were the mean changes in best-corrected visual acuity and the proportion of eyes gaining at least 15 letters at the 24-month examination. Secondary outcomes included central macular thickness, size of the CNV, and extension to the fovea. RESULTS: Fifteen patients were included in the study. Mean best-corrected visual acuity changed from 0.47 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (20/60 Snellen equivalent) at baseline to 0.22 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (20/30 Snellen equivalent) at the 24-month examination. An improvement of at least 3 ETDRS lines was achieved by 7 eyes (46.6%) at the 24-month examination. Mean central macular thickness changed from 313 µm to 254 µm at the 24-month examination (P = 0.008). Mean CNV size decreased from 348 µm2 to 251 µm2 at 24 months (P = 0.029). CONCLUSION: Intravitreal bevacizumab injection is a beneficial treatment for extrafoveal CNV associated with pathologic myopia.

Intravitreal bevacizumab for juxtafoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to multifocal choroiditis.

PURPOSE: To assess the effects of intravitreal bevacizumab injections in the treatment of juxtafoveal choroidal neovascularization associated with multifocal choroiditis. METHODS: Prospective interventional case series. Fourteen patients (14 eyes) affected by juxtafoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to multifocal choroiditis were examined. All patients underwent a complete ophthalmologic examination, including measurement of best-corrected visual acuity using Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study charts, optical coherence tomography, and fluorescein angiography. The protocol treatment included a first injection, followed by repeated intravitreal bevacizumab injections over a 12-month follow-up period on the basis of optical coherence tomography parameters and angiographic features. RESULTS: Mean best-corrected visual acuity changed from 0.41 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (approximately corresponding to 20/51 Snellen equivalent), at baseline, to 0.16 ± 0.13 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (approximately corresponding to 20/28 Snellen equivalent), at the 12-month examination (P < 0.002). A functional improvement of at least 3 Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study lines was achieved by 6 eyes (43%) at the 12-month examination. Mean central macular thickness at baseline was 318 µm, reducing to 239 µm at the 12-month examination (P < 0.001). No eye showed choroidal neovascularization extension to the fovea. CONCLUSION: Intravitreal bevacizumab is a beneficial treatment for juxtafoveal choroidal neovascularization associated with multifocal choroiditis. Further studies are warranted to confirm these preliminary results.

PARACENTRAL ACUTE MIDDLE MACULOPATHY IN CENTRAL RETINAL VEIN OCCLUSION COMPLICATING AMYLOID LIGHT-CHAIN AMYLOIDOSIS.

PURPOSE: To describe a case of paracentral acute middle maculopathy associated with central retinal vein occlusion in a patient affected by amyloid light-chain amyloidosis. METHODS: One patient with confirmed diagnosis of amyloid light-chain amyloidosis, displaying paracentral acute middle maculopathy and central retinal vein occlusion, was recruited. The patient underwent complete ophthalmologic examination and multimodal imaging, including: fundus autofluorescence, fluorescein angiography, indocyanine green angiography, spectral-domain optical coherence tomography, and optical coherence tomography angiography. RESULTS: Fundus autofluorescence showed a ferning pattern, corresponding to linear hypofluorescence in late-phase indocyanine green angiography and delayed venous filling, detected by fluorescein angiography. Structural optical coherence tomography revealed a hyper-reflective line located in the outer plexiform layer, corresponding to the prominent middle limiting membrane, along with several placoid lesions. Optical coherence tomography angiography found that the superficial capillary plexus was preserved, whereas vessel density was reduced in both the deep capillary plexus and the choriocapillaris. After 1 year of follow-up, the patient achieved an almost complete morphological recovery. CONCLUSION: Multimodal imaging described in depth the morphological features of a case of combined paracentral acute middle maculopathy and central retinal vein occlusion in a patient affected by amyloid light-chain amyloidosis.

The Clinical Characteristics of Unilateral Placoid Pigment Epitheliopathies.

Purpose: Placoid-pigment-epitheliopathies like Acute-Posterior-Multifocal-Placoid-Pigment Epitheliopathy (APMPPE) and Relentless-Placoid-Choroidopathy (RPC) usually show bilateral involvement. This retrospective case series describes the clinical features with unilateral disease onset.Methods: 21 patients from 9 tertiary referring institutions were collected and evaluated.Results: Seventeen patients were included: 11 (65%) had unilateral placoid-pigment-epitheliopathy consistent with APMPPE, 6 (35%) with RPC (mean age: 28.82 ± 9.1 years). Mean follow-up time was 45 ± 48 months. Forty-one percent fellow-eyes had initial inflammatory signs including vitreous-cells, vascular-sheathing, and ONH swelling. Thirty-five percent developed chorioretinal lesions during follow-up after 19.5 ± 16.9 months. Initial inflammation in fellow-eye was not associated with fellow-eye involvement (p = .5). However, subfoveal choroidal-thickness (SCT) at baseline was significantly thicker in fellow-eyes who developed chorioretinal lesion compared to fellow-eyes who did not (400 ± 70 µm versus 283 ± 127 µm,p = .047).Conclusion: Unaffected fellow-eyes may have inflammatory signs at initial disease-onset and may develop lesions over time. They should be carefully monitored, particularly if they present with an increased SCT.

Laser treatment of drusen to prevent progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration.

BACKGROUND: Drusen are amorphous yellowish deposits beneath the sensory retina. People with drusen, particularly large drusen, are at higher risk of developing age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The most common complication in AMD is choroidal neovascularisation (CNV), the growth of new blood vessels in the centre of the macula. The risk of CNV is higher among patients who are already affected by CNV in one eye.It has been observed clinically that laser photocoagulation of drusen leads to their disappearance and may prevent the occurrence of advanced disease (CNV or geographic atrophy) associated with visual loss. OBJECTIVES: To examine the effectiveness and adverse effects of laser photocoagulation of drusen in AMD. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE and EMBASE on 14 November 2008. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of laser treatment of drusen in AMD in which laser treatment had been compared with no intervention or sham treatment. Two types of trials were included. Some trials studied one eye of each patient (unilateral studies); other studies recruited patients with bilateral drusen and randomised one eye to photocoagulation or control and the fellow eye to the other group. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently selected studies and extracted data. We pooled data from unilateral and bilateral studies using a random-effects model. For the bilateral studies, we estimated the within-patient correlation coefficient from one study and assumed it was valid for the others. MAIN RESULTS: We found nine studies which randomised 2216 people: four unilateral trials, three bilateral trials and two trials that included both a unilateral and a bilateral study arm.Overall, the studies were of moderate quality. Only half of the trials reported adequate allocation sequence generation, allocation concealment and masking of visual acuity outcome assessors.Although two (of the nine) studies reported significant drusen disappearance at two years, photocoagulation did not appear to affect the development of CNV at two years follow up (nine studies, 1767 people followed up, odds ratio (OR) 1.04, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.51) or the loss of three or more lines of visual acuity (six studies, 1628 people followed up, OR 1.17, 95% CI 0.75 to 1.82). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The trials included in this review confirm the clinical observation that laser photocoagulation of drusen leads to their disappearance. However, there is no evidence that this subsequently results in a reduction in the risk of developing CNV, geographic atrophy or visual acuity loss.

Prevalence and causes of vision loss in high-income countries and in Eastern and Central Europe: 1990-2010.

BACKGROUND: To assess prevalence and causes of blindness and vision impairment in high-income regions and in Central/Eastern Europe in 1990 and 2010. METHODS: Based on a systematic review of medical literature, prevalence of moderate and severe vision impairment (MSVI; presenting visual acuity <6/18 but ≥3/60 in the better eye) and blindness (presenting visual acuity <3/60) was estimated for 1990 and 2010. RESULTS: Age-standardised prevalence of blindness and MSVI decreased from 0.2% to 0.1% (3.314 million to 2.736 million people) and from 1.6% to 1.0% (25.362 million to 22.176 million), respectively. Women were generally more affected than men. Cataract was the most frequent cause of blindness in all subregions in 1990, but macular degeneration and uncorrected refractive error became the most frequent causes of blindness in 2010 in all high-income countries, except for Eastern/Central Europe, where cataract remained the leading cause. Glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy were fourth and fifth most common causes for blindness for all regions at both times. Uncorrected refractive error, followed by cataract, macular degeneration, glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy, was the most common cause for MSVI in 1990 and 2010. CONCLUSIONS: In highly developed countries, prevalence of blindness and MSVI has been reduced by 50% and 38%, respectively, and the number of blind people and people with MSVI decreased by 17.4% and 12.6%, respectively, even with the increasing number of older people in the population. In high-income countries, macular degeneration has become the most important cause of blindness, but uncorrected refractive errors continue to be the leading cause of MSVI.

Intravitreal bevacizumab versus ranibizumab for the treatment of retinal angiomatous proliferation.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effects of intravitreal bevacizumab and ranibizumab treatments in retinal angiomatous proliferation (RAP). METHODS: Fifty patients affected by RAP were randomly assigned either to intravitreal bevacizumab injection (IVBI) or intravitreal ranibizumab injection (IVRI). After a loading phase including three consecutive monthly injections, the retreatment was administered in cases of persistent RAP. The primary outcome measures were the mean changes in BCVA between the two treatment groups, and the proportion of eyes gaining 1 and 3 lines at the end of the follow-up. Secondary outcomes included central macular thickness (CMT) changes and progression to more advanced stages of RAP. RESULTS: Fifty patients affected by stage 1 and 2 RAP were recruited. Twenty-six and 24 patients received IVBI and IVRI, respectively. At the baseline, mean best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) values were 0.59 ± 0.21 (LogMAR ± SD, approximately corresponding to 20/80 Snellen Equivalent-SE) in IVBI group and 0.66 ± 0.33 (approximately 20/90 SE) in IVRI group with no statistical difference. At 12-month examination, both groups showed a statistically significant improvement in the BCVA, with a final mean value of 0.43 ± 0.24 (approximately 20/54 SE) in IVBI group and 0.50 ± 0.32 (approximately 20/63 SE) in the IVRI group. A BCVA gain of 1 and 3 lines was registered in 20 and 8 eyes, respectively, in the IVBI group. Similarly, 17 and 7 eyes showed an improvement of 1 or 3 lines, respectively, in the IVRI group. The CMT reduced significantly from baseline to 12-month examination in both groups. A lower proportion of eyes with complete pigment epithelium detachment resolution was noted in the IVBI group than in the IVRI group (40% versus 90%). CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that both IVBI and IVRI are equally effective in improving the BCVA over a 1-year follow-up in eyes affected by stage 1 and 2 RAP.

Insight into 144 patients with ocular vascular events during VEGF antagonist injections.

AIM: To record ocular vascular events following injections of vascular endothelium growth factor (VEGF) antagonists. METHODS: Collaborative multicenter case series (48 cases), literature reviews (32 cases), and reports to the FDA (64 cases) of patients that had vascular occlusions during anti-VEGF therapy were collected and analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 144 cases of ocular vascular events were identified, with these diagnosed a median of 15 days after anti-VEGF injection. The majority of patients had pre-existing risk factors for cardiovascular events and nine patients had a prior history of glaucoma. Mean visual acuity dropped by 6.4 lines with severe visual loss after injection to NLP (five eyes), LP (six eyes), and HM (two eyes). The overall risk of ocular vascular events following a VEGF antagonist injection was 0.108% in the general population and 2.61% in the diabetic population. Mean retinal arterial constriction after intravitreal bevacizumab in 13 eyes was 21% (standard deviation = 27%), and mean retinal venous constriction was 8% (standard deviation = 30%). CONCLUSION: Ocular vascular events are rare during anti-VEGF therapy, but can lead to severe visual loss and may be caused by a number of factors including the vasoconstrictor effect of the drug, a post-injection rise of intraocular pressure, patient stress as a result of the procedure, and the patient's natural history of underlying ocular or systemic diseases. The diabetic population appears to have a tendency towards ocular vascular occlusions.

New perspectives in the management of post-surgical macular edema.

Post-surgical macular edema is the most common cause of vision loss after phacoemulsification, and one of the main causes of reduced vision in patients undergoing other ocular surgery. At present, there are no reliable randomized clinical trials specifically designed to define the best therapeutic approach, and little information is available regarding the treatment algorithm of acute or chronic forms. As a consequence, there is no agreement regarding the current management of post-surgical macular edema. Many therapeutic options have been proposed on the basis of the hypothesized pathogenetic mechanism of post-surgical macular edema. New therapies for post-surgical macular edema include non-steroidal anti-flammatory drugs and intraocular steroid implants. Aim of the review is to update the current management of postsurgical macular edema, reporting on the most recent therapeutic advances. In particular, we discuss the potential applications of recent patents with topical and intravitreal drugs.