Human Salmonellosis Outbreak Linked to Salmonella Typhimurium Epidemic in Wild Songbirds, United States, 2020-2021.

Salmonella infection causes epidemic death in wild songbirds, with potential to spread to humans. In February 2021, public health officials in Oregon and Washington, USA, isolated a strain of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium from humans and a wild songbird. Investigation by public health partners ultimately identified 30 illnesses in 12 states linked to an epidemic of Salmonella Typhimurium in songbirds. We report a multistate outbreak of human salmonellosis associated with songbirds, resulting from direct handling of sick and dead birds or indirect contact with contaminated birdfeeders. Companion animals might have contributed to the spread of Salmonella between songbirds and patients; the outbreak strain was detected in 1 ill dog, and a cat became ill after contact with a wild bird. This outbreak highlights a One Health issue where actions like regular cleaning of birdfeeders might reduce the health risk to wildlife, companion animals, and humans.

Reoccurring Escherichia coli O157:H7 Strain Linked to Leafy Greens-Associated Outbreaks, 2016-2019.

Genomic characterization of an Escherichia coli O157:H7 strain linked to leafy greens-associated outbreaks dates its emergence to late 2015. One clade has notable accessory genomic content and a previously described mutation putatively associated with increased arsenic tolerance. This strain is a reoccurring, emerging, or persistent strain causing illness over an extended period.

Multistate Outbreak of Salmonella Thompson Infections Linked to Seafood Exposure - United States, 2021.

In July 2021, the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE) laboratory identified a cluster of five Salmonella enterica serotype Thompson isolates related to one another within one allele difference, using whole genome multilocus sequence typing (wgMLST). These five isolates, submitted to the public health laboratory as is routine process for confirmatory testing of Salmonella, were highly related to those identified in a 2020 multistate investigation, during which traceback was conducted for sushi-grade tuna and salmon; a common supplier was not identified. The 2021 investigation commenced on August 5, 2021, with five patients living in Colorado, and one each in Missouri, Washington, and Wisconsin. During August-December 2021, CDC, CDPHE, public health and regulatory officials in several states, and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) conducted epidemiologic, environmental, and laboratory investigations of this multistate outbreak of Salmonella Thompson. Isolates were genetically related to one another and to 2020 isolates within zero to one allele difference. Implicated seafood products were traced to a single seafood distributor, in which the outbreak strain was identified through environmental sampling, and in which inspection identified inadequate sanitization and opportunities for cross-contamination of raw fish. The distributor issued a voluntary recall of 16 seafood items with high potential for contamination and completed remediation actions. This outbreak illustrated the importance of effective cleaning and sanitizing procedures and implementation of controls. When multiple products are recalled during an outbreak investigation, collaboration between public health agencies and implicated facilities can help provide food safety information to restaurants, retailers, and consumers, and to ensure disposal of all recalled products.

An Outbreak Investigation of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Infections in the United States Linked to Crabmeat Imported from Venezuela: 2018.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is the leading cause of seafood-related foodborne illness globally. In 2018, the U.S. federal, state, and local public health and regulatory partners investigated a multistate outbreak of V. parahaemolyticus infections linked to crabmeat that resulted in 26 ill people and nine hospitalizations. State and U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) laboratories recovered V. parahaemolyticus, Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes isolates from crabmeat samples collected from various points of distribution and conducted phylogenetic analyses of whole-genome sequencing data. Federal, state, and local partners conducted traceback investigations to determine the source of crabmeat. Multiple Venezuelan processors that supplied various brands of crabmeat were identified, but a sole firm was not confirmed as the source of the outbreak. Travel restrictions between the United States and Venezuela prevented FDA officials from conducting on-site inspections of cooked crabmeat processors. Based on investigation findings, partners developed public communications advising consumers not to eat crabmeat imported from Venezuela and placed potentially implicated firms on import alerts. While some challenges limited the scope of the investigation, epidemiologic, traceback, and laboratory evidence identified the contaminated food and country of origin, and contributed to public health and regulatory actions, preventing additional illnesses. This multistate outbreak illustrates the importance of adhering to appropriate food safety practices and regulations for imported seafood.

Two multistate outbreaks of a reoccurring Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli strain associated with romaine lettuce: USA, 2018-2019.

Leafy green vegetables are a common source of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 (STEC O157) foodborne illness outbreaks. Ruminant animals, primarily cattle, are the major reservoir of STEC O157. Epidemiological, traceback and field investigations were conducted to identify potential outbreak sources. Product and environmental samples were tested for STEC. A reoccurring strain of STEC O157 caused two multistate outbreaks linked to romaine lettuce in 2018 and 2019, resulting in 234 illnesses in 33 states. Over 80% of patients interviewed consumed romaine lettuce before illness. The romaine lettuce was sourced from two California growing regions: Santa Maria and Salinas Valley in 2018 and Salinas Valley in 2019. The outbreak strain was isolated from environmental samples collected at sites >90 miles apart across growing regions, as well as from romaine-containing products in 2019. Although the definitive route of romaine contamination was undetermined, use of a contaminated agricultural water reservoir in 2018 and contamination from cattle grazing on adjacent land in 2019 were suspected as possible factors. Preventing lettuce contamination from growth to consumption is imperative to preventing illness. These outbreaks highlight the need to further understand mechanisms of romaine contamination, including the role of environmental or animal reservoirs for STEC O157.

Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infections Associated With Romaine Lettuce-United States, 2018.

BACKGROUND: Produce-associated outbreaks of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) were first identified in 1991. In April 2018, New Jersey and Pennsylvania officials reported a cluster of STEC O157 infections associated with multiple locations of a restaurant chain. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) queried PulseNet, the national laboratory network for foodborne disease surveillance, for additional cases and began a national investigation. METHODS: A case was defined as an infection between 13 March and 22 August 2018 with 1 of the 22 identified outbreak-associated E. coli O157:H7 or E. coli O61 pulsed-field gel electrophoresis pattern combinations, or with a strain STEC O157 that was closely related to the main outbreak strain by whole-genome sequencing. We conducted epidemiologic and traceback investigations to identify illness subclusters and common sources. A US Food and Drug Administration-led environmental assessment, which tested water, soil, manure, compost, and scat samples, was conducted to evaluate potential sources of STEC contamination. RESULTS: We identified 240 case-patients from 37 states; 104 were hospitalized, 28 developed hemolytic uremic syndrome, and 5 died. Of 179 people who were interviewed, 152 (85%) reported consuming romaine lettuce in the week before illness onset. Twenty subclusters were identified. Product traceback from subcluster restaurants identified numerous romaine lettuce distributors and growers; all lettuce originated from the Yuma growing region. Water samples collected from an irrigation canal in the region yielded the outbreak strain of STEC O157. CONCLUSIONS: We report on the largest multistate leafy greens-linked STEC O157 outbreak in several decades. The investigation highlights the complexities associated with investigating outbreaks involving widespread environmental contamination.

An Outbreak Investigation of Salmonella Typhimurium Illnesses in the United States Linked to Packaged Leafy Greens Produced at a Controlled Environment Agriculture Indoor Hydroponic Operation - 2021.

In 2021, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and state partners investigated a multistate outbreak of Salmonella Typhimurium illnesses linked to packaged leafy greens from a controlled environment agriculture (CEA) operation in Illinois. Thirty-one illnesses and four hospitalizations were reported in four states, with a significant epidemiologic signal for packaged leafy greens from Farm A. A traceback investigation for leafy greens included seven points of service (POS) with food exposure data from eight ill people. Each POS was supplied leafy greens by Farm A. FDA investigators observed operations at Farm A and noted that 1) the firm did not consider their indoor hydroponic pond water as agricultural water, 2) condensate dripping from the chiller water supply line inside the building, and 3) unprotected outdoor storage of packaged soilless growth media and pallets used for finished product. FDA collected 25 product, water, and environmental samples from Farm A. The outbreak strain was recovered from a water sample collected from a stormwater drainage basin located on the property adjacent to Farm A. In addition, an isolate of Salmonella Liverpool was recovered from two indoor growing ponds within the same growing house, but no illnesses were linked to the isolate. Farm A voluntarily recalled all implicated products and provided their root cause analysis (RCA) and return-to-market plan to FDA. While the source and route of the contamination were not determined by the RCA, epidemiologic and traceback evidence confirmed the packaged salads consumed by ill persons were produced by Farm A. This was the first investigation of a multistate foodborne illness outbreak associated with leafy greens grown in a CEA operation. This outbreak demonstrated the need for growers using hydroponic methods to review their practices for potential sources and routes of contamination and to reduce food safety risks when identified.

Genetic disease risks can be misestimated across global populations.

BACKGROUND: Accurate assessment of health disparities requires unbiased knowledge of genetic risks in different populations. Unfortunately, most genome-wide association studies use genotyping arrays and European samples. Here, we integrate whole genome sequence data from global populations, results from thousands of genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and extensive computer simulations to identify how genetic disease risks can be misestimated. RESULTS: In contrast to null expectations, we find that risk allele frequencies at known disease loci are significantly different for African populations compared to other continents. Strikingly, ancestral risk alleles are found at 9.51% higher frequency in Africa, and derived risk alleles are found at 5.40% lower frequency in Africa. By simulating GWAS with different study populations, we find that non-African cohorts yield disease associations that have biased allele frequencies and that African cohorts yield disease associations that are relatively free of bias. We also find empirical evidence that genotyping arrays and SNP ascertainment bias contribute to continental differences in risk allele frequencies. Because of these causes, polygenic risk scores can be grossly misestimated for individuals of African descent. Importantly, continental differences in risk allele frequencies are only moderately reduced if GWAS use whole genome sequences and hundreds of thousands of cases and controls. Finally, comparisons between uncorrected and corrected genetic risk scores reveal the benefits of considering whether risk alleles are ancestral or derived. CONCLUSIONS: Our results imply that caution must be taken when extrapolating GWAS results from one population to predict disease risks in another population.