Comprehensive assessment of cellular senescence in the tumor microenvironment.

Cellular senescence (CS), a state of permanent growth arrest, is intertwined with tumorigenesis. Due to the absence of specific markers, characterizing senescence levels and senescence-related phenotypes across cancer types remain unexplored. Here, we defined computational metrics of senescence levels as CS scores to delineate CS landscape across 33 cancer types and 29 normal tissues and explored CS-associated phenotypes by integrating multiplatform data from ~20 000 patients and ~212 000 single-cell profiles. CS scores showed cancer type-specific associations with genomic and immune characteristics and significantly predicted immunotherapy responses and patient prognosis in multiple cancers. Single-cell CS quantification revealed intra-tumor heterogeneity and activated immune microenvironment in senescent prostate cancer. Using machine learning algorithms, we identified three CS genes as potential prognostic predictors in prostate cancer and verified them by immunohistochemical assays in 72 patients. Our study provides a comprehensive framework for evaluating senescence levels and clinical relevance, gaining insights into CS roles in cancer- and senescence-related biomarker discovery.

Disruption of Cell Membranes and Redox Homeostasis as an Antibacterial Mechanism of Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma against Fusarium oxysporum.

Direct barrier discharge (DBD) plasma is a potential antibacterial strategy for controlling Fusarium oxysporum (F. oxysporum) in the food industry. The aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effect and mechanism of action of DBD plasma on F. oxysporum. The result of the antibacterial effect curve shows that DBD plasma has a good inactivation effect on F. oxysporum. The DBD plasma treatment severely disrupted the cell membrane structure and resulted in the leakage of intracellular components. In addition, flow cytometry was used to observe intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and mitochondrial membrane potential, and it was found that, after plasma treatment, intracellular ROS accumulation and mitochondrial damage were accompanied by a decrease in antioxidant enzyme activity. The results of free fatty acid metabolism indicate that the saturated fatty acid content increased and unsaturated fatty acid content decreased. Overall, the DBD plasma treatment led to the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, which altered the cell membrane fatty acid content, thereby inducing cell membrane damage. Meanwhile, DBD plasma-induced ROS penetrated the cell membrane and accumulated intracellularly, leading to the collapse of the antioxidant system and ultimately causing cell death. This study reveals the bactericidal effect and mechanism of the DBD treatment on F. oxysporum, which provides a possible strategy for the control of F. oxysporum.

Respiratory depression driven by membrane damage as a mechanism for linalool to inhibit Pseudomonas lundensis and its preservation potential for beef.

AIMS: This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of linalool against Pseudomonas lundensis and its application on beef. METHODS AND RESULTS: Field emission scanning electron microscopy found that linalool exerted antibacterial activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 1.5 ml l-1 by disrupting cell structure. Loss of cell membrane integrity was monitored due to leakage of nucleic acids and K+. In addition, respiratory depression appeared in Ps. lundensis based on inhibition of enzyme activities including hexokinase (HK), glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), phosphofructokinase (PFK), pyruvate kinase (PK), pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), citrate synthase (CS), succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), and malate dehydrogenase (MDH). Subsequently, energy limitation also occurred according to the decrease in ATP content and ATPase activity. Molecular docking confirmed that linalool can combine with enzymes in cell wall (ddlB) and energy synthesis (AtpD) pathways to exert antibacterial effect. Of note, linalool has advantages for beef preservation by delaying quality changes including pH, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) and total viable count (TVC). CONCLUSIONS: Linalool has significant inhibitory effect on Ps. lundensis, and respiratory depression driven by membrane damage is the main inhibitory mechanism.

Unraveling the Antioxidant Activity of 2R,3R-dihydroquercetin.

It has been reported that in an oxidative environment, the flavonoid 2R,3R-dihydroquercetin (2R,3R-DHQ) oxidizes into a product that rearranges to form quercetin. As quercetin is a very potent antioxidant, much better than 2R,3R-DHQ, this would be an intriguing form of targeting the antioxidant quercetin. The aim of the present study is to further elaborate on this targeting. We can confirm the previous observation that 2R,3R-DHQ is oxidized by horseradish peroxidase (HRP), with H2O2 as the oxidant. However, HPLC analysis revealed that no quercetin was formed, but instead an unstable oxidation product. The inclusion of glutathione (GSH) during the oxidation process resulted in the formation of a 2R,3R-DHQ-GSH adduct, as was identified using HPLC with IT-TOF/MS detection. GSH adducts appeared on the B-ring of the 2R,3R-DHQ quinone, indicating that during oxidation, the B-ring is oxidized from a catechol to form a quinone group. Ascorbate could reduce the quinone back to 2R,3R-DHQ. No 2S,3R-DHQ was detected after the reduction by ascorbate, indicating that a possible epimerization of 2R,3R-DHQ quinone to 2S,3R-DHQ quinone does not occur. The fact that no epimerization of the oxidized product of 2R,3R-DHQ is observed, and that GSH adducts the oxidized product of 2R,3R-DHQ on the B-ring, led us to conclude that the redox-modulating activity of 2R,3R-DHQ quinone resides in its B-ring. This could be confirmed by chemical calculation. Apparently, the administration of 2R,3R-DHQ in an oxidative environment does not result in 'biotargeting' quercetin.

Emerging forward osmosis and membrane distillation for liquid food concentration: A review.

As emerging membrane technologies, forward osmosis (FO) and membrane distillation (MD), which work with novel driving forces, show great potential for liquid food concentration, owing to their low fouling propensity and great driving force. In the last decades, they have attracted the attention of food industry scientists in global scope. However, discussions of the FO and MD in liquid food concentration advancement, membrane fouling, and economic assessment have been scant. This review aims to provide an up-to-date knowledge about liquid food concentration by FO and MD. First, we introduce the principle and applications of FO and MD in liquid food concentration, and highlight the effect of process on liquid food composition, membrane fouling mechanism, and strategies for fouling mitigation. Besides, economic assessment of FO and MD processes is reviewed. Moreover, the challenges as well as future prospects of FO and MD applied in liquid food concentration are proposed and discussed. Comparing with conventional membrane-based or thermal-based technologies, FO and MD show outstanding advantages in high concentration rate, good concentrate quality, low fouling propensity, and low cost. Future efforts for liquid food concentration by FO and MD include (1) development of novel FO draw solution (DS); (2) understanding the effects of liquid food complex compositions on membrane fouling in FO and MD concentration process; and (3) fabrication of novel membranes and innovation of membrane module and process configuration for liquid food processing.

Age-Associated Sirtuin 1 Reduction in Vascular Smooth Muscle Links Vascular Senescence and Inflammation to Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm.

RATIONALE: Uncontrolled growth of abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) is a life-threatening vascular disease without an effective pharmaceutical treatment. AAA incidence dramatically increases with advancing age in men. However, the molecular mechanisms by which aging predisposes individuals to AAAs remain unknown. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we investigated the role of SIRT1 (Sirtuin 1), a class III histone deacetylase, in AAA formation and the underlying mechanisms linking vascular senescence and inflammation. METHODS AND RESULTS: The expression and activity of SIRT1 were significantly decreased in human AAA samples. SIRT1 in vascular smooth muscle cells was remarkably downregulated in the suprarenal aortas of aged mice, in which AAAs induced by angiotensin II infusion were significantly elevated. Moreover, vascular smooth muscle cell-specific knockout of SIRT1 accelerated angiotensin II-induced formation and rupture of AAAs and AAA-related pathological changes, whereas vascular smooth muscle cell-specific overexpression of SIRT1 suppressed angiotensin II-induced AAA formation and progression in Apoe-/- mice. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of SIRT1 on AAA formation was also proved in a calcium chloride (CaCl2)-induced AAA model. Mechanistically, the reduction of SIRT1 was shown to increase vascular cell senescence and upregulate p21 expression, as well as enhance vascular inflammation. Notably, inhibition of p21-dependent vascular cell senescence by SIRT1 blocked angiotensin II-induced nuclear factor-κB binding on the promoter of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and inhibited its expression. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide evidence that SIRT1 reduction links vascular senescence and inflammation to AAAs and that SIRT1 in vascular smooth muscle cells provides a therapeutic target for the prevention of AAA formation.

The Paraoxonase Gene Cluster Protects Against Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Formation.

OBJECTIVE: Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a life-threatening vascular pathology, the pathogenesis of which is closely related to oxidative stress. However, an effective pharmaceutical treatment is lacking because the exact cause of AAA remains unknown. Here, we aimed at delineating the role of the paraoxonases (PONs) gene cluster (PC), which prevents atherosclerosis through the detoxification of oxidized substrates, in AAA formation. APPROACH AND RESULTS: PC transgenic (Tg) mice were crossed to an Apoe-/- background, and an angiotensin II-induced AAA mouse model was used to analyze the effect of the PC on AAA formation. Four weeks after angiotensin II infusion, PC-Tg Apoe-/- mice had a lower AAA incidence, smaller maximal abdominal aortic external diameter, and less medial elastin degradation than Apoe-/- mice. Importantly, PC-Tg Apoe-/- mice exhibited lower aortic reactive oxidative species production and oxidative stress than did the Apoe-/- control mice. As a consequence, the PC transgene alleviated angiotensin II-induced arterial inflammation and suppressed arterial extracellular matrix degradation. Specifically, on angiotensin II stimulation, PC-Tg vascular smooth muscle cells exhibited lower levels of reactive oxidative species production and a decrease in the activities and expression levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9. Moreover, PC-Tg serum also enhanced vascular smooth muscle cell oxidative stress resistance and further decreased the expression levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9, indicating that circulatory and vascular smooth muscle cell PC members suppress oxidative stress in a synergistic manner. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings reveal, for the first time, a protective role of the PC in AAA formation and suggest PONs as promising targets for AAA prevention.

The multi-scale structures and in vitro digestibility of starches with different crystalline types induced by dielectric barrier discharge plasma.

The effects of plasma treatment on multi-scale structures and in vitro digestibility of starches isolated from Tartary buckwheat (TBS), potato (PTS), and pea (PS), were investigated. The results from SEM and CLSM showed that plasma treatment resulted in the extension of pores from the starch hilum to the surface. The XRD and 13C CP/MAS NMR spectra demonstrated that the crystalline type of three starches was not changed by plasma treatment, while the RC and double helix content of TBS increased. Besides, the single helix content and the proportion of amorphous phase decreased following the treatment, which was consistent with the result of SAXS. However, the PTS and PS showed the opposite results by plasma treatment. In addition, the modification significantly changed the molecular weight (Mw) and chain length distribution of all the starches, among which the Mw of PTS fell drastically from 2.45 × 107 g/mol to 1.74 × 107 g/mol. The in vitro digestibility of starches increased significantly when treated with plasma, in which TBS exhibited the biggest increase for its inside-out and side-by-side digestion manners. Therefore, plasma treatment led to different alteration trends for multi-scale structures with quite various change extent for in vitro digestibility about different crystalline starches.

Dynamic interfacial adsorption and emulsifying performance of self-assembled coconut protein and fucoidan mixtures.

The functional properties of protein are affected by their aggregation behavior and morphology. In this study, the self-assembled coconut protein aggregates with specific morphology, including small amorphous aggregates (WLA), spherical-like aggregates (SLA) and rod-like aggregates (RLA), were regulated to form. The self-assembled process resulted in a decrease in fluorescence intensity and an increase in the surface hydrophobicity of coconut protein. Fucoidan was added to improve the stability of protein solutions, and the interfacial adsorption behavior was evaluated by dilatational rheology analysis. The results showed that the aggregation state of coconut protein affected its ability to reduce surface tension, and the interfacial layers mainly exhibited elastic property at oil-water interface (tanφ < 0.5). For macroscale analysis, the emulsions based on self-assembled coconut protein exhibited smaller droplet size, better rheological properties and centrifugal stability, especially WLA and RLA. This study may provide a reference to inspire the utilization of self-assembled coconut protein in the food industry.

Supramolecular structure and in vitro digestive properties of plasma-treated corn starches varying in amylose content.

The effects of plasma treatment on the multi-scale structure and in vitro digestibility of maize starch with different amylose contents were systematically evaluated. The results demonstrated that all maize starches' molecular weights (MW) decreased when treated with plasma, among which the MW of waxy maize starch displayed the largest reduction. Plasma treatment led to an increase in the thickness of the semi-crystalline lamellae and double helix proportions of waxy and normal maize starches. However, high-amylose maize starch presented a less ordered structure by plasma treatment. Additionally, larger pores and channels were observed on the surface of plasma-treated waxy and normal maize starch granules. Moreover, deposits were displayed on the surface of high-amylose maize starch granules. These changes increased the in vitro digestibility and hydrolysis rate of three starches after plasma treatment. Notably, plasma treatment caused diverse alterations in the structure and functionality of maize starch varying in amylose content, leading to maize starch with better digestibility, therefore being used as an ingredient for functional foods.

Effects of repeated and continuous dry heat treatments on the physicochemical, structural, and in vitro digestion properties of chickpea starch.

The study investigated the impacts of repeated (RDH) and continuous dry heat (CDH) treatments on the physicochemical, structural, and in vitro digestion properties of chickpea starch. The results of SEM and CLSM showed that more fissures and holes appeared on the surface of granules as the treated time of CDH and the circles of RDH increased, both of which made the starch sample much easier to break down by digestive enzymes. Moreover, the fissures and holes of starch granules treated by CDH were more obvious than those of RDH. The XRD and FT-IR results suggested that the crystal type remained C-type, and the relative crystallinity and R1047/1022 of the chickpea starch decreased after dry heat treatments. In addition, a marked decline in the pasting viscosity and gelatinization temperature of chickpea starches was found with dry heat treatments. Moreover, the increased enzyme accessibility of starch was fitted as suggested by the increased RDS content and digestion rate. This study provided basic data for the rational design of chickpea starch-based foods with nutritional functions.

Mechanism for improving the in vitro digestive properties of coconut milk by modifying the structure and properties of coconut proteins with monosodium glutamate.

In this paper, the effect of monosodium glutamate (MSG) on coconut protein (CP) solubility, surface hydrophobicity, emulsification activity, ultraviolet spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy was investigated. Meanwhile, the changes in the in vitro digestive properties of coconut milk were also further analyzed. MSG treatment altered the solubility and surface hydrophobicity of CP, thereby improving protein digestibility. Molecular docking showed that CP bound to pepsin and trypsin mainly through hydrogen bonds and salt bridges. And MSG increased the cleavable sites of pepsin and trypsin on CP, thus further improving the protein digestibility. In addition, MSG increased the Na+ concentration in coconut milk, promoted flocculation and aggregation between coconut milk droplets, which prevented the binding of lipase and oil droplets and inhibited lipid digestion. These findings may provide new ideas and insights to improve the digestive properties of plant-based milk.

Edible Quality Analysis of Different Areca Nuts: Compositions, Texture Characteristics and Flavor Release Behaviors.

The areca nut is one of the most important cash crops in the tropics and has substantial economic value. However, the research information about the edible quality of different areca nuts is still insufficient. This study compared the composition, texture characteristics and flavor release behaviors of four different areca nuts (AN1, AN2, AN3 and AN4) and two commercially dried areca nuts (CAN1 and CAN2). Results showed that AN1 had higher soluble fiber and lower lignin, which was the basis of its lower hardness. Meanwhile, the total soluble solid (TSS) of AN1 was the highest, which indicated that AN1 had a moister and more succulent mouthfeel. After the drying process, the lignification degree of AN1 was the lowest. Through textural analyses, the hardness of AN1 was relatively low compared to the other dried areca nuts. AN1, CAN1 and CAN2 had higher alkaline pectin content and viscosity, and better flavor retention, which indicated better edible quality. The present study revealed the differences of various areca nuts and provided vital information to further advance the study of areca nuts.

Sodium alginate emulsion loaded with linalool: Preparation, characterization and antibacterial mechanism against Shigella sonnei.

This study aimed to prepare sodium alginate-linalool emulsion (SA-LE) to overcome the low solubility of linalool and explore its inhibitory activity against Shigella sonnei. The results indicated that linalool significantly reduced the interfacial tension between SA and oil phase (p < 0.05). Droplet sizes of fresh emulsions were uniform with sizes from 2.54 to 2.58 µm. The ζ-potential was between -23.94 and -25.03 mV, and the viscosity distribution was 973.62 to 981.03 mPa·s at pH 5-8 (near neutral pH) without significant difference. In addition, linalool could be effectively released from SA-LE in accordance with the Peppas-Sahlin model, mainly described by Fickian diffusion. In particular, SA-LE can inhibit S. sonnei with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 3 mL/L, which was lower than free linalool. The mechanism can be described as damaging the membrane structure and inhibiting respiratory metabolism accompanied by oxidative stress based on FESEM, SDH activity, ATP and ROS content. These results suggest that SA is an effective encapsulation strategy to enhance the stability of linalool and its inhibitory effect on S. sonnei at near neutral pH. Moreover, the prepared SA-LE has the potential to be developed as a natural antibacterial agent to address the growing food safety challenges.

Mechanism for improving coconut milk emulsions viscosity by modifying coconut protein structure and coconut milk properties with monosodium glutamate.

In this study, monosodium glutamate (MSG) was used to improve the viscosity of coconut milk and the underlying mechanism was explored by investigating the changes in structures of coconut milk protein and physicochemical properties of coconut milk. Firstly, the effect of MSG on the properties of coconut milk was studied. The results showed that MSG increased the pH and zeta potential, reduced the particle size, thus enhancing the droplet interaction and increasing the viscosity of coconut milk. Subsequently, the effects of MSG on the structure and properties of coconut proteins (CP) were investigated. FTIR spectroscopy and circular dichroism spectroscopy showed that MSG was able to change the secondary structure of CP. The results of SDS-PAGE showed that MSG was able to bind to CP to form a larger molecular weight protein, thus improving the viscosity of coconut milk. Moreover, MSG was also able to increase the water-binding capacity of CP. In addition, molecular docking and driving force analysis revealed that hydrogen bonds, electrostatic forces, disulfide bonds, and hydrophobic interactions are the main interactions between MSG and CP. Studying the effect of MSG on the viscosity of coconut milk provides theoretical support to improve the viscosity of other plant protein emulsions.

Effect of steam explosion on the morphological, textural, and compositional characteristics of betel nut.

To reduce the adverse physical effects on the oral mucosa caused by excessive hardness of betel nut fibers, steam explosion was used to soften betel nuts. The effect of three operating parameters (pressure holding time, explosion pressure, and initial moisture content) on the morphology, texture, and chemical composition of the betel nuts was investigated. The fiber hardness and Shore hardness decreased by 56.17%-89.28% and 7.03%-34.29%, respectively, and the transverse tensile strength and fiber tensile strength also decreased by up to 60.72% and 24.62%, respectively. Moreover, the coefficient of static friction and moisture content increased. After steam explosion, the betel nut increased in transverse diameter, became darker and more yellow-red in color, and showed a damaged microstructure. The contents of free phenol and alkaloids decreased after steam explosion treatment, with free phenols and total alkaloids decreasing from 34.32 mg(GAE)/g and 7.84 mg/g to 21.58 mg(GAE)/g and 6.50 mg/g, respectively, after the A-50 s treatment condition. The steam explosion increased the quantity of phenols, alkaloids, and soluble solids released from the betel nut under the same simulated release conditions of the texture analyzer. The research also showed that increased pressure holding time and explosion pressure enhanced the explosion efficiency, while the initial moisture content was reduced the explosion efficiency. Therefore, steam explosion is an effective pretreatment approach to soften betel nut and facilitate healthy development of the betel nut industry.

Effects of protein concentration, ionic strength, and heat treatment on the interfacial and emulsifying properties of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) globulins.

This research aimed to investigate the effects of protein concentration (0.2 %-1.0 %), ionic strength (100-500 mM NaCl), and heat treatment (temperature: 80 and 90℃; time: 15 and 30 min) on the interfacial and emulsifying properties of coconut globulins (CG). When protein concentration was set at 0.2-0.6 %, the interfacial adsorption increased with the increasing of protein concentration. However, the lowest interfacial viscoelasticity was found when CG concentration was 0.6 %. When the protein concentration was higher than 0.6 %, the dilatational viscoelasticity increased with the increasing of protein concentration. The protein concentration showed positive effect on the emulsion stability of CG. The ionic strength showed positive effect on the interfacial adsorption but negative effects on the interfacial viscoelasticity and emulsion stability. Higher temperature and longer heating time brought worse interface behavior. The heated CG (90℃, 30 min) had the worst interfacial behavior but the best emulsion stability.

High-voltage and short-time dielectric barrier discharge plasma treatment affects structural and digestive properties of Tartary buckwheat starch.

To systematically explore the effects of high-voltage and short-time (HV-ST) dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma treatment on Tartary buckwheat starch (TBS), TBS was treated at 15 and 20 kV for 20 and 40 s. Compared to native starch, more corrosions and holes were observed on the surfaces of plasma-modified TBS observed by SEM. Increased crystallinity and short-range structure order in plasma-modified TBS were determined using XRD and FT-IR respectively, while the average chain length and amylose content decreased, with lowest values (13.5 and 6.9%) in sample 20-40. Meanwhile, the solubility and paste clarity of plasma-modified TBS increased, whereas the viscosities decreased, enhancing in vitro digestibility with highest value (79.5%) in sample 20-40. These changes of TBS properties positively correlated with the treatment voltage and time length. Therefore, HV-ST DBD plasma treatment served as an effective tool for altering the properties of TBS. It is favorable for the applications of starch ingredients with low viscosity and high paste clarity, as well as accelerating starch hydrolyzation processes, such as brewing and food fermentation.

Antimicrobial mechanism of linalool against Brochothrix thermosphacta and its application on chilled beef.

This work aimed to explore the antibacterial ability and potential mechanism of linalool against Brochothrix thermosphacta (B. thermosphacta), providing knowledge of the preservation of chilled beef with linalool. The results found that linalool had an encouraging inhibitory effect on B. thermosphacta with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 1.5 mL/L. Results of FESEM and zeta potential combined with probe labeling confirmed that linalool destroyed the cell structure thereby causing the leakage of intracellular components (AKP, protein, nucleic acid and ion). In addition, linalool caused respiratory disturbance by measuring the key enzyme activities including PK, SDH, MDH and ATPase. Energy limitation also appeared under linalool stress as seen from changes in ATP content (decreased by 56.06% and 69.24% in MIC and 2MIC groups, respectively). The respiratory inhibition rate of linalool to B. thermosphacta was 23.58% and the superposing rate with malonic acid was minimal (35.52%), suggesting that respiratory depression was mainly caused by the TCA cycle. Furthermore, accumulation of ROS and increase in MDA content (increased by 71.17% and 78.03% in MIC and 2MIC groups, respectively) accompanied by decreased activities of detoxification enzymes CAT and POD suggested that oxidative stress contributed to the bactericidal mechanism. Finally, linalool has been shown to effectively inhibit quality deterioration of chilled beef during storage by measuring pH, TVB-N and TVC without affecting sensory acceptability. All these highlight the great promise of using linalool as natural preservative for food industry.

Preparation and Characterization of Beads of Sodium Alginate/Carboxymethyl Chitosan/Cellulose Nanofiber Containing Porous Starch Embedded with Gallic Acid: An In Vitro Simulation Delivery Study.

In this study, a system was designed that can encapsulate and deliver gallic acid (GA), which was composed of polysaccharide polymers based on sodium alginate (SA), carboxymethyl chitosan (CCT), and cellulose nanofibers (CN) and was assisted by porous starch. The compositions were characterized by rheology and zeta potentials, and the results showed that the materials used in this study could effectively guarantee the stability of the system. The morphology and chemical structure of the beads were characterized by SEM and FT-IR, the results indicated that the addition of CCT could effectively reduce the cracks and pores on the surface of the beads, which was beneficial to the encapsulation and delivery of GA. Moreover, the results of the swelling rate, release tests, and antioxidant tests also proved the effectiveness of the system. The pH response effect of SA/CN/CCT (SCC) beads and the protection of GA were superior, and the release rate of GA in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) was only 6.95%, while SA and SA/CN (SCN) beads reached 57.94% and 78.49%, respectively. In conclusion, the interpenetrating network polymers constructed by SA, CCT, and CN, which, combined with porous starch as a coating layer, can achieve the embedding and the delivery of GA.