Comparison of In-Clinic Diagnostic Testing Methods for Macrorhabdus ornithogaster.

Macrorhabdus ornithogaster is an ascomycete yeast often found at the isthmus of the ventriculus and proventriculus of infected birds. Antemortem diagnosis has traditionally involved direct visualization of organisms on wet-mount or gram-stained fecal preparations, cloacal and crop swabs, or by both methods; however, different in-clinic diagnostic techniques have never been compared to establish an optimum test for the identification of M ornithogaster in an avian patient. We compared 5 microscopically evaluated diagnostic testing methods: fecal Gram's stain, direct fecal wet preparation, macro suspension technique, macro suspension with Gram's stain, and macro suspension stained with new methylene blue. Each technique was performed on 96 fecal samples collected during the treatment of M ornithogaster-infected budgerigars with water-soluble amphotericin B. The macro suspension technique produced statistically higher organism counts than the other 4 techniques and was always estimated to have the largest detection probability. We recommend that the macro suspension technique be implemented as the most efficacious diagnostic test for in-clinic assessment of avian patients possibly infected with M ornithogaster.

Evidence of amphotericin B resistance in Macrorhabdus ornithogaster in Australian cage-birds.

Amphotericin B is widely used for the treatment of Macrorhabdus ornithogaster infections. To date, however, there have been no randomized controlled trials confirming its efficacy where cure was confirmed by postmortem examination. To determine the efficacy of amphotericin B against M. ornithogaster, a three-part study was undertaken. Treatment outcomes of M. ornithogaster infected birds treated amphotericin B were reviewed. A pilot treatment trial with two naturally infected birds (Melopsittacus undulatus and Agapornis roseicollis) was undertaken, administering amphotericin B at 100 mg/kg twice daily for 30 days. Finally, a randomized controlled trial using experimentally infected chickens treated with amphotericin B at 25 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg twice daily for 10 days was performed. Retrospective analysis indicated treatment failure in 80.4% of 36 cases that met the inclusion criteria. The pilot study showed that amphotericin B did not clear, but significantly decreased Macrorhabdus ornithogaster burden, followed by profound rebound effect of the number of organisms shed in the feces. Finally, the randomized controlled trial found that amphotericin B given at 100 mg/kg did not clear, but significantly decreased the burden of M. ornithogaster compared with both the 25 mg/kg group (P = .037) and the no treatment control group (P = .001). A strong curvilinear correlation between body weight and M. ornithogaster infection burden was present in the infected chickens. These findings represent treatment failure in three scenarios and indicate that treatment with amphotericin B has poor efficacy against Macrorhabdus ornithogaster.

A survey of a mixed species aviary provides new insights into the pathogenicity, diversity, evolution, host range, and distribution of psittacine and passerine adenoviruses.

A Bourke's parrot (Neopsephotus bourkii) originating from an aviary in Australia, containing two species of parrots, five species of finch and a species of dove, was presented for necropsy. The Bourke's parrot died from gastritis caused by Macrorhabdus ornithogaster, but also had an interstitial nephritis and ureteritis with adenovirus-like inclusion bodies within collecting duct epithelial cells. The adenovirus causing the lesions was shown to be Psittacine adenovirus-2 (PsAdV-2) using a PCR assay specific for adenoviruses and sequencing of amplicons. A survey of droppings from other birds in the aviary using the same PCR assay with amplicon sequencing found a high prevalence of infection of PsAdV-2 in Bourke's and scarlet-chested parrots (Neophema splendida). PsAdV-2 was also present in droppings from a Namaqua dove (Oena capensis). Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae), red-billed firefinches (Lagonosticta senegala), and red-throated parrot finches (Erythrura psittacea) were shedding Gouldian finch adenovirus-1 (GFAdV-1). Two novel adenoviruses, an atadenovirus and a siadenovirus, were detected in the droppings from long-tailed finches (Poephila acuticauda). Kidney tissue from three of four scarlet-chested parrots submitted for necropsy from a second aviary were also positive for PsAdv-2. These findings and previously reported findings of widespread PsAdv-2 infection in captive orange-bellied parrots (Neophemia chrysogaster) raise the possibility that PsAdV-2 is enzootic in Australian aviculture. This represents the first report of GFAdV-1 in Australia and first identification of infection in finch species other than the Gouldian finch. Identification of two novel adenoviruses in long-tailed finches suggests that other novel adenoviruses are circulating in other finch species. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Psittacine adenovirus-2 was present in high prevalence in two Australian aviaries. Gouldian finch adenovirus-1 (GFAdV-1) was detected in Australia for the first time. The host range of GFAdV-1 host range was expanded to other finch species. Novel atadenovirus and siadenovirus were detected in Estrildid finches.

Multicentric Septic Osteomyelitis and Arthritis Caused by Staphylococcus aureus in a Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus).

An adult female gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) was presented with a right-wing droop and weight loss. Radiographic images revealed osteolysis and osseous proliferation of the right shoulder and the mobile vertebra between the notarium and synsacrum. The tentative diagnosis was vertebral osteomyelitis secondary to septic arthritis. The bird did not respond to antibiotic and anti-inflammatory therapy and represented 10 days later, with feathers soiled with feces, an impacted, dilated cloaca, and an inability to stand due to spastic paralysis of the hind legs. The bird's condition did not improve with 24 hours of supportive care and its quality of life was considered poor; therefore, the patient was euthanatized and submitted for postmortem examination. Multicentric septic osteomyelitis and arthritis were confirmed in the mobile vertebra between the notarium and synsacrum and the right shoulder. Despite 10 days of antibiotic therapy, Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from within the 2 locations in which septic osteomyelitis and arthritis were identified. This report describes the clinical features, diagnosis, and pathologic findings of septic osteomyelitis and arthritis caused by S aureus in a falcon.

A Novel Technique for Extracapsular Repair of the Intertarsal Joint in a Duck.

The intertarsal joint is a synovial roll-and-glide joint. Ligament damage and luxations of this joint are often the result of traumatic injury or growth deformities and result in significant functional impairment. A 9-month-old female Pekin duck ( Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) was examined because of progressive, nonweight-bearing lameness of the left leg. Moderate effusive swelling was present at the level of the left intertarsal joint, without radiographic evidence of bone involvement. The duck failed to respond to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications and analgesia and was diagnosed with rupture of the medial collateral ligament. Extracapsular surgical correction using bone tunnels and circumferential nylon suture on the medial aspect of the intertarsal joint led to a complete clinical resolution with normal return to function 2 weeks after surgery. This report reviews the anatomy and function of the intertarsal joint in the duck and details a simple extracapsular repair technique useful in the correction of collateral ligament rupture in this joint of ducks.

Differential Gamma Interferon- and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha-Driven Cytokine Response Distinguishes Acute Infection of a Metatherian Host with Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum.

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum (both Apicomplexa) are closely related cyst-forming coccidian parasites that differ significantly in their host ranges and ability to cause disease. Unlike eutherian mammals, Australian marsupials (metatherian mammals) have long been thought to be highly susceptible to toxoplasmosis and neosporosis because of their historical isolation from the parasites. In this study, the carnivorous fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata) was used as a disease model to investigate the immune response and susceptibility to infection of an Australian marsupial to T. gondii and N. caninum The disease outcome was more severe in N. caninum-infected dunnarts than in T. gondii-infected dunnarts, as shown by the severity of clinical and histopathological features of disease and higher tissue parasite burdens in the tissues evaluated. Transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) of spleens from infected dunnarts and mitogen-stimulated dunnart splenocytes was used to define the cytokine repertoires. Changes in mRNA expression during the time course of infection were measured using quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR) for key Th1 (gamma interferon [IFN-γ] and tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α]), Th2 (interleukin 4 [IL-4] and IL-6), and Th17 (IL-17A) cytokines. The results show qualitative differences in cytokine responses by the fat-tailed dunnart to infection with N. caninum and T. gondii Dunnarts infected with T. gondii were capable of mounting a more effective Th1 immune response than those infected with N. caninum, indicating the role of the immune response in the outcome scenarios of parasite infection in this marsupial mammal.

Toxoplasmosis in a Pet Peach-Faced Lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis).

Toxoplasma gondii atypical type II genotype was diagnosed in a pet peach-faced lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis) based on histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and multilocus DNA typing. The bird presented with severe neurological signs, and hematology was suggestive of chronic granulomatous disease. Gross post-mortem examination revealed cerebral hemorrhage, splenomegaly, hepatitis, and thickening of the right ventricular free wall. Histologic sections of the most significant lesions in the brain revealed intralesional protozoan organisms associated with malacia, spongiform changes, and a mild histiocytic response, indicative of diffuse, non-suppurative encephalitis. Immunohistochemistry confirmed the causative organisms to be T. gondii. DNA isolated from the brain was used to confirm the presence of T. gondii DNA. Multilocus genotyping based on SAG1, altSAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico markers demonstrated the presence of ToxoDB PCR-RFLP genotype #3 and B1 gene as atypical T. gondii type II. The atypical type II strain has been previously documented in Australian wildlife, indicating an environmental transmission route.

Evaluation of Multidrug Therapy With Azithromycin, Rifampin, and Ethambutol for the Treatment of Mycobacterium avium subsp avium in Ring-neck Doves (Streptopelia risoria): An Uncontrolled Clinical Study.

An uncontrolled clinical study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of a multidrug protocol in 16 ring-neck doves ( Streptopelia risoria ) from a flock naturally infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp avium. The doves were considered infected on the basis of a high prevalence of infection in a group of 29 birds that were euthanatized from the same flock and clinical signs and pathologic results consistent with infection in the remaining birds. All birds were treated with azithromycin (43 mg/kg), rifampin (45 mg/kg), and ethambutol (30 mg/kg) administered orally once daily for 180 days. Five birds died during treatment and were confirmed positive for mycobacteriosis on postmortem examination. Of the remaining 11 birds, infection and disease were present in 9 (81.8%) at the end of the treatment. Postmortem investigation showed that 2 mycobacterial isolates were resistant to ethambutol, intermediately sensitive to rifampin, and sensitive to azithromycin. Microscopic examination of liver sections equivalent of those that would be taken for biopsy showed that biopsy as a method of monitoring birds for treatment success had poor sensitivity. Toxicity associated with drug therapy was not observed in these doves nor in 6 outwardly healthy ring-neck doves exposed to the same treatment. The results of this study showed that this protocol of azithromycin, rifampin, and ethambutol has poor efficacy when administered for 180 days for treatment of doves infected with M avium subsp avium.

Infection trials in mice suggest that Macrorhabdus ornithogaster is not capable of growth in mammals.

The objective of this study was to determine if Macrorhabdus ornithogaster, a yeast recovered from the junction of the proventriculus and ventriculus of the stomach of parrots and other birds, can infect mice. Fifteen healthy ARC (S) female mice (age 10 weeks) were incoculated with M. ornithogaster by gavage at (two different dosage rates [n = 5]) or intraperitoneal injection (n = 5) (one dosage rate). They were euthanized 5 days later and examined for gross and microscopic evidence of infection. Macrorhabdus ornithogaster was not found to colonize the stomach, peritoneum, or viscera of the challeneged mice. The results of this study show that M. ornithogaster is not able to infect mice by the oral and intraperitoneal routes of administration and suggest that infection in mammals is unlikely to occur.

Detection of a Novel Alphaherpesvirus and Avihepadnavirus in a Plantar Papilloma from a Rainbow Lorikeet (Trichoglosis moluccanus).

Cutaneous plantar papillomas are a relatively common lesion of wild psittacine birds in Australia. Next-generation sequencing technology was used to investigate the potential aetiologic agent(s) for a plantar cutaneous papilloma in a wild rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglosis moluccanus). In the DNA from this lesion, two novel viral sequences were detected. The first was the partial sequence of a herpesvirus with the proposed name, psittacid alphaherpesvirus 6, from the Mardivirus genus of the family alphaherpesviruses. This represents the first mardivirus to be detected in a psittacine bird, the first mardivirus to be detected in a wild bird in Australia, and the second mardivirus to be found in a biopsy of an avian cutaneous papilloma. The second virus sequence was a complete sequence of a hepadnavirus, proposed as parrot hepatitis B genotype H (PHBV-H). PHBV-H is the first hepadnavirus to be detected in a wild psittacine bird in Australia. Whether other similar viruses are circulating in wild birds in Australia and whether either of these viruses play a role in the development of the plantar papilloma will require testing of biopsies from similar lesions and normal skin from other wild psittacine birds.

Characterisation of a novel aviadenovirus associated with disease in tawny frogmouths (Podargus strigoides).

Aviadenoviruses are widespread in wild birds but rarely cause disease in nature. However, when naïve species are exposed to poultry or aviaries, aviadenoviruses can lead to disease outbreaks. This study characterised a novel aviadenovirus infection in a native Australian bird, the tawny frogmouth (Podargus strigoides) during an outbreak investigation. The identified complete genome of aviadenovirus, named tawny frogmouth aviadenovirus A (TwAviAdV-A) was 41,175 bp in length containing 52 putative genes. TwAviAdV-A exhibits the common aviadenovirus genomic organisation but with a notable monophyletic subclade in the phylogeny. The TwAviAdV-A virus was hepatotrophic and the six frogmouths presented to the wildlife hospitals in South Eastern Queensland most commonly exhibited regurgitation (in four frogmouths). Three were died or euthanized, two recovered, and one showed no signs. The detection of TwAviAdV-A in frogmouths coming into care re-emphasizes the need for strict biosecurity protocols in wildlife hospitals and care facilities.

Close-kin mark-recapture informs critically endangered terrestrial mammal status.

Reliable information on population size is fundamental to the management of threatened species. For wild species, mark-recapture methods are a cornerstone of abundance estimation. Here, we show the first application of the close-kin mark-recapture (CKMR) method to a terrestrial species of high conservation value; the Christmas Island flying-fox (CIFF). The CIFF is the island's last remaining native terrestrial mammal and was recently listed as critically endangered. CKMR is a powerful tool for estimating the demographic parameters central to CIFF management and circumvents the complications arising from the species' cryptic nature, mobility, and difficult-to-survey habitat. To this end, we used genetic data from 450 CIFFs captured between 2015 and 2019 to detect kin pairs. We implemented a novel CKMR model that estimates sex-specific abundance, trend, and mortality and accommodates observations from the kin-pair distribution of male reproductive skew and mate persistence. CKMR estimated CIFF total adult female abundance to be approximately 2050 individuals (95% CI (950, 4300)). We showed that on average only 23% of the adult male population contributed to annual reproduction and strong evidence for between-year mate fidelity, an observation not previously quantified for a Pteropus species in the wild. Critically, our population estimates provide the most robust understanding of the status of this critically endangered population, informing immediate and future conservation initiatives.

New species of Myxosporea from frogs and resurrection of the genus Cystodiscus Lutz, 1889 for species with myxospores in gallbladders of amphibians.

Two new myxosporean species in the gallbladders of frogs have recently spread across eastern Australia and cause disease. Cystodiscus axonis sp. n. and Cystodiscus australis sp. n. are species of Myxosporea (Myxozoa) identified from a range of Australian frogs and tadpoles including the introduced Cane toad (Rhinella marina). The new species are defined by their distinct genetic lineage, myxospore morphology and ultrastructure of the pre-sporogonic development. Spores of both species are produced in the gallbladder. Spores of C. axonis sp. n. possess distinct filiform polar appendages (FPA). The pre-sporogonic development of C. axonis sp. n. is within myelinated axons in the central nervous system of hosts, as well as bile ducts of tadpoles. Pre-sporogonic and sporogonic development of C. australis sp. n. is confined to tadpole bile ducts and myxospores of C. australis sp. n. are devoid of FPA. The genus Cystodiscus Lutz, 1889 introduced for Cystodiscus immersus Lutz, 1889 is emended to accompany myxosporean parasites affecting amphibians previously classified in the genus Myxidium sensu lato. A synopsis of described species within Cystodiscus is provided.

Characterization of a Near-Complete Genome Sequence of a Chaphamaparvovirus from an Australian Boobook Owl (Ninox boobook).

This study reports a complete genome sequence of a variant of psittacine chaphamaparvovirus 2 detected in kidney tissue from an Australian boobook (Ninox boobook), compiled using next-generation sequencing. The genome was 4,312 bp long, encoding four open reading frames. The detection of this variant in boobook represents a significant host-switching event.

Genome Sequence of a Beak and Feather Disease Virus from an Unusual Novel Host, Australian Boobook Owl (Ninox boobook).

The beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) is a pathogen of psittacine birds. BFDVs infecting nonpsittacine birds remain largely uncharacterized. We report the genome of a BFDV from a boobook owl (Ninox boobook), a nonpsittacine bird. The genome consisted of 1,993 bp containing two major bidirectionally transcribed open reading frames.

Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus 1, 4 and 5 in China: Occurrence in Multiple Sample Types and Implications for Wild and Captive Population Surveillance.

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) are important causes of death in both captive and wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Nothing is known about the prevalence of EEHVs in wild or domestic elephants in China. To determine if EEHVs are present in elephants in China, 126 wild elephants from three populations and 202 captive individuals from zoos (n = 155) and the Wild Elephant Valley (n = 47) were screened using semi-nested polymerase chain reaction assays with EEHV-redundant and EEHV1/4/5-specific primers. EEHV1B and EEHV4 were detected in samples from both wild (EEHV1B:8/126; EEHV4:2/126) and captive (EEHV1B:5/155; EEHV4:9/155) elephants, while EEHV1A (six cases) and EEHV5 (one case) were only present in the captive elephants from the Wild Elephant Valley. EEHV1 was detected in blood and trunk and oral swabs; EEHV4 was detected in trunk and oral swabs as well as feces; EEHV5 was found in trunk and oral swabs. No significant age or sex association with EEHV1A, EEHV1B, or EEHV5 positivity was observed. An age association with EEHV4 positivity was found, with all unweaned elephants being EEHV4 positive, but an association with the sex of the elephant was not observed. These findings represent the first documentation of EEHV presence in captive and wild elephants in China. These findings also document EEHV1B and EEHV4 shedding in feces and demonstrate the utility of fecal screening as a tool for investigating EEHV4 infection in wild populations of elephants. It is recommended that EEHV testing be included in surveillance programs for captive and wild elephants in China.

Serological evidence of a pararubulavirus and a betacoronavirus in the geographically isolated Christmas Island flying-fox (Pteropus natalis).

Due to their geographical isolation and small populations, insular bats may not be able to maintain acute immunizing viruses that rely on a large population for viral maintenance. Instead, endemic transmission may rely on viruses establishing persistent infections within hosts or inducing only short-lived neutralizing immunity. Therefore, studies on insular populations are valuable for developing broader understanding of viral maintenance in bats. The Christmas Island flying-fox (CIFF; Pteropus natalis) is endemic on Christmas Island, a remote Australian territory, and is an ideal model species to understand viral maintenance in small, geographically isolated bat populations. Serum or plasma (n = 190), oral swabs (n = 199), faeces (n = 31), urine (n = 32) and urine swabs (n = 25) were collected from 228 CIFFs. Samples were tested using multiplex serological and molecular assays, and attempts at virus isolation to determine the presence of paramyxoviruses, betacoronaviruses and Australian bat lyssavirus. Analysis of serological data provides evidence that the species is maintaining a pararubulavirus and a betacoronavirus. There was little serological evidence supporting the presence of active circulation of the other viruses assessed in the present study. No viral nucleic acid was detected and no viruses were isolated. Age-seropositivity results support the hypothesis that geographically isolated bat populations can maintain some paramyxoviruses and coronaviruses. Further studies are required to elucidate infection dynamics and characterize viruses in the CIFF. Lastly, apparent absence of some pathogens could have implications for the conservation of the CIFF if a novel disease were introduced into the population through human carriage or an invasive species. Adopting increased biosecurity protocols for ships porting on Christmas Island and for researchers and bat carers working with flying-foxes are recommended to decrease the risk of pathogen introduction and contribute to the health and conservation of the species.

Experimental infection of Asian house geckos with Enterococcus lacertideformus demonstrates multiple disease transmission routes and the in-vivo efficacy of antibiotics.

The disease caused by Enterococcus lacertideformus is multisystemic and ultimately fatal. Since its emergence, the bacterium has significantly impacted the captive breeding programs of the extinct in the wild Christmas Island Lister's gecko (Lepidodactylus listeri) and blue-tailed skink (Cryptoblepharus egeriae). The bacterium's pathogenicity, inability to grow in-vitro, and occurrence beyond the confines of Christmas Island necessitated the development of an experimental infection and treatment model. Asian house geckos (Hemidactylus frenatus) were challenged with a single dose of E. lacertideformus inoculum either by mouth, application to mucosal abrasion or skin laceration, subcutaneous injection, coelomic injection, or via co-housing with an infected gecko. Five healthy geckos acted as controls. Each transmission route resulted in disease in at least 40% (n = 2) geckos, expanding to 100% (n = 5) when E. lacertideformus was applied to skin laceration and mucosal abrasion groups. Incubation periods post-infection ranged between 54 and 102 days. To determine the efficacy of antibiotic treatment, infected geckos were divided into six groups (enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg, per os (PO), every 24 h (q24), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid 10 mg/kg, PO, q24, enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg combined with amoxicillin-clavulanic acid 10 mg/kg, PO, q24, rifampicin 15 mg/kg, PO, q24, clarithromycin 15 mg/kg, PO, q24, and untreated controls) for 21 days. Response to treatment was assessed by the change in lesion size, bacterial dissemination, and histological evidence of a host immune response. Irrespective of the antibiotic given, histology revealed that geckos inoculated by skin laceration were observed to have more extensive disease spread throughout the animal's body compared to other inoculation routes. The reduction in the average surface area of gross lesions was 83.6% for geckos treated with enrofloxacin, followed by the combination therapy amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and enrofloxacin (62.4%), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (58.2%), rifampicin (45.5%), and clarithromycin (26.5%). Lesions in geckos untreated with antibiotics increased in size between 100 and 300%. In summary, enrofloxacin and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid show promising properties for the treatment of E. lacertideformus infection in geckos. The Asian house gecko E. lacertideformus infection model therefore provides foundational findings for the development of effective therapeutic treatment protocols aimed at conserving the health of infected and at-risk reptiles.

Evidence of chronic cadmium exposure identified in the critically endangered Christmas Island flying-fox (Pteropus natalis).

The Christmas Island flying-fox (Pteropus natalis) is the last native mammal on Christmas Island and its population is in decline. Phosphate mining occurs across much of the eastern side of Christmas Island. The phosphate deposits are naturally rich in cadmium, and potentially other metals, which may be threatening the Christmas Island flying-fox population. To test this, concentrations of metals (cadmium, copper, iron, mercury, lead, and zinc) were measured in fur and urine collected from Christmas Island flying-foxes and interpreted concurrently with urinalysis and serum biochemistry data. In addition, metal concentrations in liver and kidney samples from two Christmas Island flying-foxes and associated histological findings from one of these individuals are reported. Fur cadmium concentrations were significantly higher in the Christmas Island flying-fox compared to concentrations found in flying-foxes in mainland Australia. Additionally, 30% of Christmas Island flying-foxes had urine cadmium concentrations exceeding maximum concentrations previously reported in flying-foxes in mainland Australia. Glucosuria and proteinuria were identified in two Christmas Island flying-foxes, suggestive of renal dysfunction. In one aged flying-fox, kidney cadmium concentrations were four-fold higher than toxic thresholds reported for domestic mammals. Microscopic evaluation of this individual identified bone lesions consistent with those described in laboratory animals with chronic cadmium poisoning. These results suggest that Christmas Island flying-foxes are being exposed to cadmium and identification of these sources is recommended as a focus of future research. Unexpectedly, urine iron concentrations in Christmas Island flying-foxes were higher compared to previous studies of Australian mainland flying-foxes, which suggests that urinary excretion of iron may be an important aspect of iron homeostasis in this species whose diet is iron rich.

Detection of Immunoreactivity to Psittaciform Bornavirus in the Serum of a Wild Cacatuid in Victoria, Australia.

An indirect immunofluorescence serologic assay, PCR assay, and histopathology were used to screen for psittaciform orthobornaviruses (PaBV) in wild Cacatuidae in Victoria, Australia. Anti-PaBV antibodies were detected, but PCR and histopathology did not detect PaBV. This study presents the first evidence of PaBV in wild birds in Australia.