Non-canonical role of Hippo tumor suppressor serine/threonine kinase 3 STK3 in prostate cancer.

Serine/threonine kinase 3 (STK3) is an essential member of the highly conserved Hippo tumor suppressor pathway that regulates Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) and TAZ. STK3 and its paralog STK4 initiate a phosphorylation cascade that regulates YAP1/TAZ inhibition and degradation, which is important for regulated cell growth and organ size. Deregulation of this pathway leads to hyperactivation of YAP1 in various cancers. Counter to the canonical tumor suppression role of STK3, we report that in the context of prostate cancer (PC), STK3 has a pro-tumorigenic role. Our investigation started with the observation that STK3, but not STK4, is frequently amplified in PC. Additionally, high STK3 expression is associated with decreased overall survival and positively correlates with androgen receptor (AR) activity in metastatic castrate-resistant PC. XMU-MP-1, an STK3/4 inhibitor, slowed cell proliferation, spheroid growth, and Matrigel invasion in multiple models. Genetic depletion of STK3 decreased proliferation in several PC cell lines. In a syngeneic allograft model, STK3 loss slowed tumor growth kinetics in vivo, and biochemical analysis suggests a mitotic growth arrest phenotype. To further probe the role of STK3 in PC, we identified and validated a new set of selective STK3 inhibitors, with enhanced kinase selectivity relative to XMU-MP-1, that inhibited tumor spheroid growth and invasion. Consistent with the canonical role, inhibition of STK3 induced cardiomyocyte growth and had chemoprotective effects. Our results indicate that STK3 has a non-canonical role in PC progression and that inhibition of STK3 may have a therapeutic potential for PC that merits further investigation.

Towards the Development of an In vivo Chemical Probe for Cyclin G Associated Kinase (GAK).

SGC-GAK-1 (1) is a potent, selective, cell-active chemical probe for cyclin G-associated kinase (GAK). However, 1 was rapidly metabolized in mouse liver microsomes by cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation, displaying rapid clearance in liver microsomes and in mice, which limited its utility in in vivo studies. Chemical modifications of 1 that improved metabolic stability, generally resulted in decreased GAK potency. The best analog in terms of GAK activity in cells was 6-bromo-N-(1H-indazol-6-yl)quinolin-4-amine (35) (IC50 = 1.4 µM), showing improved stability in liver microsomes while still maintaining a narrow spectrum activity across the kinome. As an alternative to scaffold modifications we also explored the use of the broad-spectrum cytochrome P450 inhibitor 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT) to decrease intrinsic clearance of aminoquinoline GAK inhibitors. Taken together, these approaches point towards the development of an in vivo chemical probe for the dark kinase GAK.

Mild, Pd-catalyzed stannylation of radioiodination targets.

Trialkylstannanes are versatile precursors for chemical transformations, including radiolabeling with a variety of halogens, particularly iodine. In the present work a convenient, Pd-mediated stannylation method is presented that can be performed in an open flask. The method is selective for aryl iodides allowing selective stannylations in the presence of other halogen atoms. The reaction conditions are mild, making the method compatible with chemically sensitive bioactive compounds.

Illuminating the understudied GPCR-ome.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the target of >30% of approved drugs. Despite their popularity, many of the >800 human GPCRs remain understudied. The Illuminating the Druggable Genome (IDG) project has generated many tools leading to important insights into the function and druggability of these so-called 'dark' receptors. These tools include assays, such as PRESTO-TANGO and TRUPATH, billions of small molecules made available via the ZINC virtual library, solved orphan GPCR structures, GPCR knock-in mice, and more. Together, these tools are illuminating the remaining 'dark' GPCRs.

Virtual Screening of a Chemically Diverse "Superscaffold" Library Enables Ligand Discovery for a Key GPCR Target.

The advent of ultra-large libraries of drug-like compounds has significantly broadened the possibilities in structure-based virtual screening, accelerating the discovery and optimization of high-quality lead chemotypes for diverse clinical targets. Compared to traditional high-throughput screening, which is constrained to libraries of approximately one million compounds, the ultra-large virtual screening approach offers substantial advantages in both cost and time efficiency. By expanding the chemical space with compounds synthesized from easily accessible and reproducible reactions and utilizing a large, diverse set of building blocks, we can enhance both the diversity and quality of the discovered lead chemotypes. In this study, we explore new chemical spaces using reactions of sulfur(VI) fluorides to create a combinatorial library consisting of several hundred million compounds. We screened this virtual library for cannabinoid type II receptor (CB2) antagonists using the high-resolution structure in conjunction with a rationally designed antagonist, AM10257. The top-predicted compounds were then synthesized and tested in vitro for CB2 binding and functional antagonism, achieving an experimentally validated hit rate of 55%. Our findings demonstrate the effectiveness of reliable reactions, such as sulfur fluoride exchange, in diversifying ultra-large chemical spaces and facilitate the discovery of new lead compounds for important biological targets.

Sandmeyer reaction repurposed for the site-selective, non-oxidizing radioiodination of fully-deprotected peptides: studies on the endogenous opioid peptide α-neoendorphin.

Standard radioiodination methods lack site-selectivity and either mask charges (Bolton-Hunter) or involve oxidative reaction conditions (chloramine-T). Opioid peptides are very sensitive to certain structural modifications, making these labeling methods untenable. In our model opioid peptide, α-neoendorphin, we replaced a tyrosyl hydroxyl with an iodine, and in cell lines stably expressing mu, delta, or kappa opioid receptors, we saw no negative effects on binding. We then optimized a repurposed Sandmeyer reaction using copper(I) catalysts with non-redoxing/non-nucleophilic ligands, bringing the radiochemical yield up to around 30%, and site-selectively incorporated radioactive iodine into this position under non-oxidizing reaction conditions, which should be broadly compatible with most peptides. The (125)I- and (131)I-labeled versions of the compound bound with high affinity to opioid receptors in mouse brain homogenates, thus demonstrating the general utility of the labeling strategy and of the peptide for exploring opioid binding sites.

Identification of Pyrimidine-Based Lead Compounds for Understudied Kinases Implicated in Driving Neurodegeneration.

The pyrimidine core has been utilized extensively to construct kinase inhibitors, including eight FDA-approved drugs. Because the pyrimidine hinge-binding motif is accommodated by many human kinases, kinome-wide selectivity of resultant molecules can be poor. This liability was seen as an advantage since it is well tolerated by many understudied kinases. We hypothesized that nonexemplified aminopyrimidines bearing side chains from well-annotated pyrimidine-based inhibitors with off-target activity on understudied kinases would provide us with useful inhibitors of these lesser studied kinases. Our strategy paired mixing and matching the side chains from the 2- and 4-positions of the parent compounds with modifications at the 5-position of the pyrimidine core, which is situated near the gatekeeper residue of the binding pocket. Utilizing this approach, we imparted improved kinome-wide selectivity to most members of the resultant library. Importantly, we also identified potent biochemical and cell-active lead compounds for understudied kinases like DRAK1, BMP2K, and MARK3/4.

Synthesis and Characterization of 5-(2-Fluoro-4-[11C]methoxyphenyl)-2,2-dimethyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrano[2,3-b]pyridine-7-carboxamide as a PET Imaging Ligand for Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 2.

Metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 (mGluR2) is a therapeutic target for several neuropsychiatric disorders. An mGluR2 function in etiology could be unveiled by positron emission tomography (PET). In this regard, 5-(2-fluoro-4-[11C]methoxyphenyl)-2,2-dimethyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrano[2,3-b]pyridine-7-carboxamide ([11C]13, [11C]mG2N001), a potent negative allosteric modulator (NAM), was developed to support this endeavor. [11C]13 was synthesized via the O-[11C]methylation of phenol 24 with a high molar activity of 212 ± 76 GBq/µmol (n = 5) and excellent radiochemical purity (>99%). PET imaging of [11C]13 in rats demonstrated its superior brain heterogeneity and reduced accumulation with pretreatment of mGluR2 NAMs, VU6001966 (9) and MNI-137 (26), the extent of which revealed a time-dependent drug effect of the blocking agents. In a nonhuman primate, [11C]13 selectively accumulated in mGluR2-rich regions and resulted in high-contrast brain images. Therefore, [11C]13 is a potential candidate for translational PET imaging of the mGluR2 function.

Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of [18F]mG2P026 as a High-Contrast PET Imaging Ligand for Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 2.

An array of triazolopyridines based on JNJ-46356479 (6) were synthesized as potential positron emission tomography radiotracers for metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 (mGluR2). The selected candidates 8-10 featured enhanced positive allosteric modulator (PAM) activity (20-fold max.) and mGluR2 agonist activity (25-fold max.) compared to compound 6 in the cAMP GloSensor assays. Radiolabeling of compounds 8 and 9 (mG2P026) was achieved via Cu-mediated radiofluorination with satisfactory radiochemical yield, >5% (non-decay-corrected); high molar activity, >180 GBq/µmol; and excellent radiochemical purity, >98%. Preliminary characterization of [18F]8 and [18F]9 in rats confirmed their excellent brain permeability and binding kinetics. Further evaluation of [18F]9 in a non-human primate confirmed its superior brain heterogeneity in mapping mGluR2 and higher affinity than [18F]6. Pretreatment with different classes of PAMs in rats and a primate led to similarly enhanced brain uptake of [18F]9. As a selective ligand, [18F]9 has the potential to be developed for translational studies.

Temozolomide-induced guanine mutations create exploitable vulnerabilities of guanine-rich DNA and RNA regions in drug-resistant gliomas.

Temozolomide (TMZ) is a chemotherapeutic agent that has been the first-line standard of care for the aggressive brain cancer glioblastoma (GBM) since 2005. Although initially beneficial, TMZ resistance is universal and second-line interventions are an unmet clinical need. Here, we took advantage of the known mechanism of action of TMZ to target guanines (G) and investigated G-rich G-quadruplex (G4) and splice site changes that occur upon TMZ resistance. We report that TMZ-resistant GBM has guanine mutations that disrupt the G-rich DNA G4s and splice sites that lead to deregulated alternative splicing. These alterations create vulnerabilities, which are selectively targeted by either the G4-stabilizing drug TMPyP4 or a novel splicing kinase inhibitor of cdc2-like kinase. Last, we show that the G4 and RNA binding protein EWSR1 aggregates in the cytoplasm in TMZ-resistant GBM cells and patient samples. Together, our findings provide insight into targetable vulnerabilities of TMZ-resistant GBM and present cytoplasmic EWSR1 as a putative biomarker.

Towards a RIOK2 chemical probe: cellular potency improvement of a selective 2-(acylamino)pyridine series.

RIOK2 is an understudied kinase associated with a variety of human cancers including non-small cell lung cancer and glioblastoma. No potent, selective, and cell-active chemical probe currently exists for RIOK2. Such a reagent would expedite re-search into the biological functions of RIOK2 and validate it as a therapeutic target. Herein, we describe the synthesis of naphthyl-pyridine based compounds that have improved cellular activity while maintaining selectivity for RIOK2. While our compounds do not represent RIOK2 chemical probes, they are the best available tool molecules to begin to characterize RIOK2 function in vitro.

Predilection for developing a hematogenous orthopaedic implant-associated infection in older versus younger mice.

BACKGROUND: The pathogenesis of hematogenous orthopaedic implant-associated infections (HOIAI) remains largely unknown, with little understanding of the influence of the physis on bacterial seeding. Since the growth velocity in the physis of long bones decreases during aging, we sought to evaluate the role of the physis on influencing the development of Staphylococcus aureus HOIAI in a mouse model comparing younger versus older mice. METHODS: In a mouse model of HOIAI, a sterile Kirschner wire was inserted retrograde into the distal femur of younger (5-8-week-old) and older (14-21-week-old) mice. After a 3-week convalescent period, a bioluminescent Staphylococcus aureus strain was inoculated intravenously. Bacterial dissemination to operative and non-operative legs was monitored longitudinally in vivo for 4 weeks, followed by ex vivo bacterial enumeration and X-ray analysis. RESULTS: In vivo bioluminescence imaging and ex vivo CFU enumeration of the bone/joint tissue demonstrated that older mice had a strong predilection for developing a hematogenous infection in the operative legs but not the non-operative legs. In contrast, this predilection was less apparent in younger mice as the infection occurred at a similar rate in both the operative and non-operative legs. X-ray imaging revealed that the operative legs of younger mice had decreased femoral length, likely due to the surgical and/or infectious insult to the more active physis, which was not observed in older mice. Both age groups demonstrated substantial reactive bone changes in the operative leg due to infection. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of an implant was an important determinant for developing a hematogenous orthopaedic infection in older but not younger mice, whereas younger mice had a similar predilection for developing periarticular infection whether or not an implant was present. On a clinical scale, diagnosing HOIAI may be difficult particularly in at-risk patients with limited examination or other data points. Understanding the influence of age on developing HOIAI may guide clinical surveillance and decision-making in at-risk patients.

Development of a potent and selective chemical probe for the pleiotropic kinase CK2.

Building on the pyrazolopyrimidine CK2 (casein kinase 2) inhibitor scaffold, we designed a small targeted library. Through comprehensive evaluation of inhibitor selectivity, we identified inhibitor 24 (SGC-CK2-1) as a highly potent and cell-active CK2 chemical probe with exclusive selectivity for both human CK2 isoforms. Remarkably, despite years of research pointing to CK2 as a key driver in cancer, our chemical probe did not elicit a broad antiproliferative phenotype in >90% of >140 cell lines when tested in dose-response. While many publications have reported CK2 functions, CK2 biology is complex and an available high-quality chemical tool such as SGC-CK2-1 will be indispensable in deciphering the relationships between CK2 function and phenotypes.

A Chemical Probe for Dark Kinase STK17B Derives Its Potency and High Selectivity through a Unique P-Loop Conformation.

STK17B is a member of the death-associated protein kinase family and has been genetically linked to the development of diverse diseases. However, the role of STK17B in normal and disease pathology is poorly defined. Here, we present the discovery of thieno[3,2-d] pyrimidine SGC-STK17B-1 (11s), a high-quality chemical probe for this understudied "dark" kinase. 11s is an ATP-competitive inhibitor that showed remarkable selectivity over other kinases including the closely related STK17A. X-ray crystallography of 11s and related thieno[3,2-d]pyrimidines bound to STK17B revealed a unique P-loop conformation characterized by a salt bridge between R41 and the carboxylic acid of the inhibitor. Molecular dynamic simulations of STK17B revealed the flexibility of the P-loop and a wide range of R41 conformations available to the apo-protein. The isomeric thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine SGC-STK17B-1N (19g) was identified as a negative control compound. The >100-fold lower activity of 19g on STK17B was attributed to the reduced basicity of its pyrimidine N1.

Quantifying CDK inhibitor selectivity in live cells.

Concerted multidisciplinary efforts have led to the development of Cyclin-Dependent Kinase inhibitors (CDKi's) as small molecule drugs and chemical probes of intracellular CDK function. However, conflicting data has been reported on the inhibitory potency of CDKi's and a systematic characterization of affinity and selectivity against intracellular CDKs is lacking. We have developed a panel of cell-permeable energy transfer probes to quantify target occupancy for all 21 human CDKs in live cells, and present a comprehensive evaluation of intracellular isozyme potency and selectivity for a collection of 46 clinically-advanced CDKi's and tool molecules. We observed unexpected intracellular activity profiles for a number of CDKi's, offering avenues for repurposing of highly potent molecules as probes for previously unreported targets. Overall, we provide a broadly applicable method for evaluating the selectivity of CDK inhibitors in living cells, and present a refined set of tool molecules to study CDK function.

SGC-AAK1-1: A Chemical Probe Targeting AAK1 and BMP2K.

Inhibitors based on a 3-acylaminoindazole scaffold were synthesized to yield potent dual AAK1/BMP2K inhibitors. Optimization furnished a small molecule chemical probe (SGC-AAK1-1, 25) that is potent and selective for AAK1/BMP2K over other NAK family members, demonstrates narrow activity in a kinome-wide screen, and is functionally active in cells. This inhibitor represents one of the best available small molecule tools to study the functions of AAK1 and BMP2K.

Molecularly specific detection of bacterial lipoteichoic acid for diagnosis of prosthetic joint infection of the bone.

Discriminating sterile inflammation from infection, especially in cases of aseptic loosening versus an actual prosthetic joint infection, is challenging and has significant treatment implications. Our goal was to evaluate a novel human monoclonal antibody (mAb) probe directed against the Gram-positive bacterial surface molecule lipoteichoic acid (LTA). Specificity and affinity were assessed in vitro. We then radiolabeled the anti-LTA mAb and evaluated its effectiveness as a diagnostic imaging tool for detecting infection via immunoPET imaging in an in vivo mouse model of prosthetic joint infection (PJI). In vitro and ex vivo binding of the anti-LTA mAb to pathogenic bacteria was measured with Octet, ELISA, and flow cytometry. The in vivo PJI mouse model was assessed using traditional imaging modalities, including positron emission tomography (PET) with [18F]FDG and [18F]NaF as well as X-ray computed tomography (CT), before being evaluated with the zirconium-89-labeled antibody specific for LTA ([89Zr]SAC55). The anti-LTA mAb exhibited specific binding in vitro to LTA-expressing bacteria. Results from imaging showed that our model could reliably simulate infection at the surgical site by bioluminescent imaging, conventional PET tracer imaging, and bone morphological changes by CT. One day following injection of both the radiolabeled anti-LTA and isotype control antibodies, the anti-LTA antibody demonstrated significantly greater (P < 0.05) uptake at S. aureus-infected prosthesis sites over either the same antibody at sterile prosthesis sites or of control non-specific antibody at infected prosthesis sites. Taken together, the radiolabeled anti-LTA mAb, [89Zr]SAC55, may serve as a valuable diagnostic molecular imaging probe to help distinguish between sterile inflammation and infection in the setting of PJI. Future studies are needed to determine whether these findings will translate to human PJI.

Noninvasive optical and nuclear imaging of Staphylococcus-specific infection with a human monoclonal antibody-based probe.

Staphylococcus aureus infections are a major threat in healthcare, requiring adequate early-stage diagnosis and treatment. This calls for novel diagnostic tools that allow noninvasive in vivo detection of staphylococci. Here we performed a preclinical study to investigate a novel fully-human monoclonal antibody 1D9 that specifically targets the immunodominant staphylococcal antigen A (IsaA). We show that 1D9 binds invariantly to S. aureus cells and may further target other staphylococcal species. Importantly, using a human post-mortem implant model and an in vivo murine skin infection model, preclinical feasibility was demonstrated for 1D9 labeled with the near-infrared fluorophore IRDye800CW to be applied for direct optical imaging of in vivo S. aureus infections. Additionally, 89Zirconium-labeled 1D9 could be used for positron emission tomography imaging of an in vivo S. aureus thigh infection model. Our findings pave the way towards clinical implementation of targeted imaging of staphylococcal infections using the human monoclonal antibody 1D9.

Mouse model of Gram-negative prosthetic joint infection reveals therapeutic targets.

Bacterial biofilm infections of implantable medical devices decrease the effectiveness of antibiotics, creating difficult-to-treat chronic infections. Prosthetic joint infections (PJI) are particularly problematic because they require prolonged antibiotic courses and reoperations to remove and replace the infected prostheses. Current models to study PJI focus on Gram-positive bacteria, but Gram-negative PJI (GN-PJI) are increasingly common and are often more difficult to treat, with worse clinical outcomes. Herein, we sought to develop a mouse model of GN-PJI to investigate the pathogenesis of these infections and identify potential therapeutic targets. An orthopedic-grade titanium implant was surgically placed in the femurs of mice, followed by infection of the knee joint with Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Escherichia coli. We found that in vitro biofilm-producing activity was associated with the development of an in vivo orthopedic implant infection characterized by bacterial infection of the bone/joint tissue, biofilm formation on the implants, reactive bone changes, and inflammatory immune cell infiltrates. In addition, a bispecific antibody targeting P. aeruginosa virulence factors (PcrV and Psl exopolysaccharide) reduced the bacterial burden in vivo. Taken together, our findings provide a preclinical model of GN-PJI and suggest the therapeutic potential of targeting biofilm-associated antigens.

Fatty acid oxidation by the osteoblast is required for normal bone acquisition in a sex- and diet-dependent manner.

Postnatal bone formation is influenced by nutritional status and compromised by disturbances in metabolism. The oxidation of dietary lipids represents a critical source of ATP for many cells but has been poorly studied in the skeleton, where the prevailing view is that glucose is the primary energy source. Here, we examined fatty acid uptake by bone and probed the requirement for fatty acid catabolism during bone formation by specifically disrupting the expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 2 (Cpt2), an obligate enzyme in fatty acid oxidation, in osteoblasts and osteocytes. Radiotracer studies demonstrated that the skeleton accumulates a significant fraction of postprandial fatty acids, which was equal to or in excess of that acquired by skeletal muscle or adipose tissue. Female, but not male, Cpt2 mutant mice exhibited significant impairments in postnatal bone acquisition, potentially due to an inability of osteoblasts to modify fuel selection. Intriguingly, suppression of fatty acid utilization by osteoblasts and osteocytes also resulted in the development of dyslipidemia and diet-dependent modifications in body composition. Taken together, these studies demonstrate a requirement for fatty acid oxidation during bone accrual and suggest a role for the skeleton in lipid homeostasis.