Ketamine and Ro 25-6981 Reverse Behavioral Abnormalities in Rats Subjected to Dietary Zinc Restriction.

Clinical and preclinical studies indicate that zinc (Zn) is an essential factor in the development and treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). Conventional monoamine-based antidepressants mobilize zinc in the blood and brain of depressed patients as well as rodents. N-methyl-D-aspartate acid receptor (NMDAR) antagonists exhibit antidepressant-like activity. However, not much is known about the antidepressant efficacy of NMDAR antagonists in zinc-deficient (ZnD) animals. We evaluated the antidepressant-like activity of two NMDAR antagonists (ketamine; global NMDAR antagonist and Ro 25-6981 (Ro); selective antagonist of the GluN2B NMDAR subunit) in ZnD rats using the forced swim test (FST) and sucrose intake test (SIT). A single dose of either Ro 25-6981 or ketamine normalized depressive-like behaviors in ZnD rats; however, Ro was effective in both tests, while ketamine was only effective in the FST. Additionally, we investigated the mechanism of antidepressant action of Ro at the molecular (analysis of protein expression by Western blotting) and anatomical (density of dendritic spines by Golgi Cox-staining) levels. ZnD rats exhibited decreased phosphorylation of the p70S6K protein, and enhanced density of dendritic spines in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) compared to control rats. The antidepressant-like activity of Ro was associated with the increased phosphorylation of p70S6K and ERK in the PFC. In summary, single doses of the NMDAR antagonists ketamine and Ro exhibited antidepressant-like activity in the ZnD animal model of depression. Animals were only deprived of Zn for 4 weeks and the biochemical effects of Zn deprivation and Ro were investigated in the PFC and hippocampus. The shorter duration of dietary Zn restriction may be a limitation of the study. However, future studies with longer durations of dietary Zn restriction, as well as the investigation of multiple brain structures, are encouraged as a supplement to this study.

Relationship between Zinc (Zn (2+) ) and Glutamate Receptors in the Processes Underlying Neurodegeneration.

The results from numerous studies have shown that an imbalance between particular neurotransmitters may lead to brain circuit dysfunction and development of many pathological states. The significance of glutamate pathways for the functioning of the nervous system is equivocal. On the one hand, glutamate transmission is necessary for neuroplasticity, synaptogenesis, or cell survival, but on the other hand an excessive and long-lasting increased level of glutamate in the synapse may lead to cell death. Under clinical conditions, hyperactivity of the glutamate system is associated with ischemia, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and many others. The achievement of glutamate activity in the physiological range requires efficient control by endogenous regulatory factors. Due to the fact that the free pool of ion Zn(2+) is a cotransmitter in some glutamate neurons; the role of this element in the pathophysiology of a neurodegenerative diseases has been intensively studied. There is a lot of evidence for Zn(2+) dyshomeostasis and glutamate system abnormalities in ischemic and neurodegenerative disorders. However, the precise interaction between Zn(2+) regulative function and the glutamate system is still not fully understood. This review describes the relationship between Zn(2+) and glutamate dependent signaling pathways under selected pathological central nervous system (CNS) conditions.

Antidepressant-like activity of magnesium in the chronic mild stress model in rats: alterations in the NMDA receptor subunits.

Recent data suggests that the glutamatergic system is involved in the pathophysiology and treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) and that the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor is a potential target for antidepressant drugs. The magnesium ion blocks the ion channel of the NMDA receptor and prevents its excessive activation. Some preclinical and clinical evidence suggests also that magnesium may be useful in the treatment of depression. The present study investigated the effect of magnesium treatment (10, 15 and 20 mg/kg, given as magnesium hydroaspartate) in the chronic mild stress (CMS) model of depression in rats. Moreover, the effect of CMS and magnesium (with an effective dose) on the level of the proteins related to the glutamatergic system (GluN1, GluN2A, GluN2B and PSD-95) in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex (PFC) and amygdala were examined. A significant reduction in the sucrose intake induced by CMS was increased by magnesium treatment at a dose of 15 mg/kg, beginning from the third week of administration. Magnesium did not affect this behavioural parameter in the control animals. CMS significantly increased the level of the GluN1 subunit in the amygdala (by 174%) and GluN2A in the hippocampus (by 191%), both of which were significantly attenuated by magnesium treatment. Moreover, magnesium treatment in CMS animals increased the level of GluN2B (by 116%) and PSD-95 (by 150%) in the PFC. The present results for the first time demonstrate the antidepressant-like activity of magnesium in the animal model of anhedonia (CMS), thus indicating the possible involvement of the NMDA/glutamatergic receptors in this activity.

Restorative effect of NitroSynapsin on synaptic plasticity in an animal model of depression.

In the search for new options for the pharmacological treatment of major depressive disorder, compounds with a rapid onset of action and high efficacy but lacking a psychotomimetic effect are of particular interest. In the present study, we evaluated the antidepressant potential of NitroSynapsin (NS) at behavioural, structural, and functional levels. NS is a memantine derivative and a dual allosteric N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDAR) antagonist using targeted delivery by the aminoadamantane of a warhead nitro group to inhibitory redox sites on the NMDAR. In a chronic restraint stress (CRS) mouse model of depression, five doses of NS administered on three consecutive days evoked antidepressant-like activity in the chronically stressed male C57BL/6J mice, reversing CRS-induced behavioural disturbances in sucrose preference and tail suspension tests. CRS-induced changes in morphology and density of dendritic spines in cerebrocortical neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) were also reversed by NS. Moreover, CRS-induced reduction in long-term potentiation (LTP) in the mPFC was found to be prevented by NS based on the electrophysiological recordings. Our study showed that NS restores structural and functional synaptic plasticity and reduces depressive behaviour to the level found in naïve animals. These results preliminarily revealed an antidepressant-like potency of NS.

Ketamine - a long way from anesthetic to a prototype antidepressant: Review of potential mechanisms of action. / Ketamina - dluga droga od anestetyku do prototypowego leku przeciwdepresyjnego. Przeglad potencjalnych mechanizmów dzialania.

Published research studies on the antidepressant activity of ketamine in the last twenty years have significantly changed the way people think about potential new antidepressants and the biological basis of depression. The symptoms of depression may subside for several days after the administration of a dose of ketamine. In contrast, achieving a therapeutic effect with classic antidepressants requires chronic administration. The critical issue for ketamine is understanding the biological basis of its amazing effects. Because one of the main molecular mechanisms of ketamine action is the blockade of NMDA-activated glutamate receptors, a great effort has been directed at understanding the role of the glutamate system in the pathophysiology of depression and the unique antidepressant profile of ketamine. This review discusses the most relevant glutamate hypotheses explaining the molecular and cellular mechanisms of ketamine action. In the first place, phenomena such as the disinhibition of glutamate release and the inhibition of NMDA receptors stimulated by spontaneously released glutamate are discussed, followed by the relationship between the antidepressant effects of ketamine, glutamate, and the functioning of the lateral habenula. The last part of the review discusses the involvement of the individual enantiomers and metabolites of ketamine in its antidepressant activity.

New investigational agents for the treatment of major depressive disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Pharmacotherapy of depression is characterized by the delayed onset of action, chronic treatment requirements, and insufficient effectiveness. Ketamine, with its rapid action and long-lasting effects, represents a breakthrough in the modern pharmacotherapy of depression. AREAS COVERED: The current review summarizes the latest findings on the mechanism of the antidepressant action of ketamine and its enantiomers and metabolites. Furthermore, the antidepressant potential of psychedelics, non-hallucinogenic serotonergic modulators, and metabotropic glutamate receptor ligands was discussed. EXPERT OPINION: Recent data indicated that to achieve fast and long-acting antidepressant-like effects, compounds must induce durable effects on the architecture and density of dendritic spines in brain regions engaged in mood regulation. Such mechanisms underlie the actions of ketamine and psychedelics. These compounds trigger hallucinations; however, it is thought that these effects might be essential for their antidepressant action. Behavioral studies with serotonergic modulators affecting 5-HT1A (biased agonists), 5-HT4 (agonists), and 5-HT-7 (antagonists) receptors exert rapid antidepressant-like activity, but they seem to be devoid of these effects. Another way to avoid psychomimetic effects and achieve the desired rapid antidepressant-like effects is combined therapy. In this respect, ligands of metabotropic receptors show some potential.

Zinc Deficiency Blunts the Effectiveness of Antidepressants in the Olfactory Bulbectomy Model of Depression in Rats.

Currently used antidepressants do not always provide the desired results, and many patients suffer from treatment-resistant depression. Clinical studies suggest that zinc deficiency (ZnD) may be an important risk factor for depression and might blunt the effect of antidepressants. This study aimed to examine whether ZnD might blunt the effectiveness of antidepressants in the olfactory bulbectomy model (OB) of depression in rats. For this purpose, rats were subjected to the OB model, fed a zinc-deficient diet (3 mg Zn/kg) for 3 weeks, and finally treated with escitalopram (Esc), venlafaxine (Ven) 10 mg/kg, i.p., or combined Esc/Ven (1 mg/kg, i.p.) with zinc (5 mg/kg) for another 3 weeks. Open field (OFT), forced swim (FST), and sucrose intake (SIT) tests were used to evaluate depressive-like behavioral changes. In addition, serum, intracellular, and synaptic Zn concentrations and the level of zinc transporter (ZnT) proteins were analyzed. The OB + ZnD model induced hyperactivity in rats in the OFT, increased immobility time in the FST, and anhedonia in the SIT. Chronic treatment with Esc reduced immobility time in the FST in the OB + ZnD model. Esc/Ven +Zn increased sucrose intake in rats from the OB + ZnD group. The OB + ZnD decreased serum zinc levels and intracellular and synaptic Zn concentration in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and cerebellum. These changes were normalized by chronic administration of Esc/Ven +Zn. Moreover, OB + ZnD decreased levels of the ZnT1 protein in the PFC and Hp and ZnT3 in Hp. Chronic administration of antidepressants did not alter the levels of ZnT proteins. The OB + ZnD model induces more depressive-like effects than either model alone. Our results show that ZnD may induce drug resistance in rats. Normalizing serum or brain zinc concentration is insufficient to reverse behavioral abnormalities caused by the OB + ZnD model. However, zinc supplementation might improve the effectiveness of antidepressants in reversing particular depression symptoms.

Combined hyperforin and lanicemine treatment instead of ketamine or imipramine restores behavioral deficits induced by chronic restraint stress and dietary zinc restriction in mice.

Clinical and preclinical studies show evidence that chronic stress or nutritional deficits in dietary zinc (Zn) intake may be risk factors for developing major depressive disorder (MDD). Furthermore, there may be possible links between low serum Zn levels and development of treatment-resistant depression. In the present work, we combined chronic restraint stress (CRS) and a low-zinc diet (ZnD) in mice and carried out a set of behavioral and biochemical studies. The mice were treated with four different antidepressant compounds, namely, ketamine, Ro 25-6981 (Ro), hyperforin and lanicemine (Hyp + Lan), and imipramine (IMI). We show that CRS or ZnD alone or a combination of CRS and ZnD (CRS + ZnD) induces anhedonia observed in the sucrose preference test (SPT). The behavioral effects of CRS were restored by ketamine or IMI. However, only Hyp + Lan restored the deficits in behavioral phenotype in mice subjected to CRS + ZnD. We also showed that the antidepressant-like effects observed in Hyp + Lan-treated CRS + ZnD mice were associated with changes in the morphology of the dendritic spines (restored physiological level) in the hippocampus (Hp). Finally, we studied the metabolism of ketamine and its brain absorption in CRS and CRS + ZnD mice. Our results suggest that CRS + ZnD does not alter the metabolism of ketamine to (2R,6R;2S,6S)-HNK; however, CRS + ZnD can induce altered bioavailability and distribution of ketamine in the Hp and frontal cortex (FC) in CRS + ZnD animals compared to the control and CRS groups.

An update on NMDA antagonists in depression.

Introduction: Current antidepressant therapies exhibit low therapeutic efficiency and delayed onset of antidepressant action. Thus, the search for better acting agents is a continuous process. One of the primary targets for the development of new antidepressant drugs is the glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. Areas covered: The present review aims to summarize and provide an update on published preclinical data evaluating the antidepressant efficacy of various NMDA antagonists and their mechanisms of action. The review also provides an update on the clinical efficacy of ketamine and esketamine as well as other NMDA receptor antagonists based on published results from clinical studies. Expert opinion: The recent approval of esketamine by the FDA for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) culminates the almost 30 years of research focused on the NMDA receptor as a target for the development of antidepressants. This action gives hope to patients who do not respond to currently available pharmacotherapy. While knowledge of the mechanism of action of ketamine/esketamine will pave the way for the creation of a new class of antidepressants, recent results have shown that several issues regarding the use of these compounds or other NMDA receptor antagonists must be clarified.

Characterization of the Brain Penetrant Neuropeptide Y Y2 Receptor Antagonist SF-11.

This paper discusses the biological and three-dimensional molecular structure of the novel, nonpeptide Y2R antagonist, SF-11 [N-(4-ethoxyphenyl)-4-(hydroxydiphenylmethyl)-1-piperidinecarbothioamide]. Pharmacokinetic studies in a rat model indicated that, following intraperitoneal dosing, SF-11 crossed the blood-brain barrier and was able to penetrate the brain, making it a suitable tool for behavioral studies. We showed for the first time that SF-11 decreased the immobility time in the forced swim test (FST) after acute peripheral administration (10 and 20 mg/kg), indicating that it has antidepressant potential. Inhibitors of the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathways blocked the anti-immobility effect of SF-11, suggesting that these pathways are involved in the antidepressant-like activity of SF-11 in the FST. The results of locomotor activity of rats indicate that the effects observed in the FST are specific and due to the antidepressant-like activity of SF-11. These findings provide further evidence for the antidepressant potential of Y2R antagonists. Also, the application of Fourier transform infrared absorption (FT-IR) and Raman spectroscopy (RS) methods combined with theoretical density functional theory (DFT) calculations allowed us to present the optimized spatial orientation of the investigated drug. Structural characterization of SF-11 based on vibrational spectroscopic data is of great importance and will aid in understanding its biological activity and pave the way for its development as a new antidepressant agent.

Antidepressant-like activity of hyperforin and changes in BDNF and zinc levels in mice exposed to chronic unpredictable mild stress.

Chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) - a rodent model of depression mimics a variety of neurochemical and behavioral alterations similar to those seen in human depression. This study evaluated the antidepressant activity of hyperforin in the CUMS model using fluoxetine (FLX) as a reference drug. The antidepressant-like effects of hyperforin and FLX were evaluated in the tail suspension test (TST), forced swim test (FST), and splash test (SPT). CUMS induced an increase in immobility time in mice (pro-depressive effects) in the FST and TST. CUMS-induced changes were reversed by chronic treatment with hyperforin (2.5 and 5 mg/kg), as well as FLX (10 mg/kg). SPT results revealed a decrease in the frequency and duration of grooming in stressed mice. These effects were normalized by hyperforin (5 mg/kg) and FLX treatment. Hyperforin (2.5 mg/kg) only reversed the CUMS-induced deficits related to the frequency of grooming. CUMS also caused a decrease in zinc concentration in the frontal cortex (FC) and hippocampus (Hp) of mice; hyperforin (2.5 mg/kg) increased zinc concentration in the Hp of control rats. CUMS also induced a decrease in BDNF protein levels in the FC and Hp, while decreasing the pCREB/CREB ratio only in the Hp. Hyperforin (2.5 and 5 mg/kg) reversed the CUMS-induced reduction of BDNF only in the Hp. Our results demonstrate the antidepressant-like activity of hyperforin in the CUMS model in mice and the possible involvement of hippocampal BDNF/zinc alterations in this activity.

Hyperforin Potentiates Antidepressant-Like Activity of Lanicemine in Mice.

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) modulators induce rapid and sustained antidepressant like-activity in rodents through a molecular mechanism of action that involves the activation of Ca2+ dependent signaling pathways. Moreover, ketamine, a global NMDAR antagonist is a potent, novel, and atypical drug that has been successfully used to treat major depressive disorder (MDD). However, because ketamine evokes unwanted side effects, alternative strategies have been developed for the treatment of depression. The objective of the present study was to determine the antidepressant effects of either a single dose of hyperforin or lanicemine vs. their combined effects in mice. Hyperforin modulates intracellular Ca2+ levels by activating Ca2+-conducting non-selective canonical transient receptor potential 6 channel (TRPC6) channels. Lanicemine, on the other hand, blocks NMDARs and regulates Ca2+ dependent processes. To evaluate the antidepressant-like activity of hyperforin and lanicemine, a set of in vivo (behavioral) and in vitro methods (western blotting, Ca2+ imaging studies, electrophysiological, and radioligand binding assays) was employed. Combined administration of hyperforin and lanicemine evoked long-lasting antidepressant-like effects in both naïve and chronic corticosterone-treated mice while also enhancing the expression of the synapsin I, GluA1 subunit, and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) proteins in the frontal cortex. In Ca2+ imaging studies, lanicemine enhanced Ca2+ influx induced by hyperforin. Moreover, compound such as MK-2206 (Akt kinase inhibitor) inhibited the antidepressant-like activity of hyperforin in the tail suspension test (TST). Hyperforin reversed disturbances induced by MK-801 in the novel object recognition (NOR) test and had no effects on NMDA currents and binding to NMDAR. Our results suggest that co-administration of hyperforin and lanicemine induces long-lasting antidepressant effects in mice and that both substances may have different molecular targets.

Antidepressant-like activity of the neuropeptide Y Y5 receptor antagonist Lu AA33810: behavioral, molecular, and immunohistochemical evidence.

RATIONALE: It has recently been found that chronic treatment with the highly selective, brain-penetrating Y5 receptor antagonist, Lu AA33810 [N-[[trans-4-[(4,5-dihydro [1] benzothiepino[5,4-d] thiazol-2-yl) amino] cyclohexyl]methyl]-methanesulfonamide], produces antidepressant-like effects in the rat chronic mild stress model. OBJECTIVE: In the present study, we investigated the possible antidepressant-like activity of Lu AA33810 in rats subjected to glial ablation in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) by the gliotoxin L-AAA, which is an astroglial degeneration model of depression. RESULTS: We observed that Lu AA33810 administered intraperitoneally at a single dose of 10 mg/kg both reversed depressive-like behavioral changes in the forced swim test (FST) and prevented degeneration of astrocytes in the mPFC. The mechanism of antidepressant and glioprotective effects of Lu AA33810 has not been studied, so far. We demonstrated the contribution of the noradrenergic rather than the serotonergic pathway to the antidepressant-like action of Lu AA33810 in the FST. Moreover, we found that antidepressant-like effect of Lu AA33810 was connected with the influence on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein expression. We also demonstrated the antidepressant-like effect of Lu AA33810 in the FST in rats which did not receive the gliotoxin. We found that intracerebroventricular injection of the selective MAPK/ERK inhibitor U0126 (5 µg/2 µl) and the selective PI3K inhibitor LY294002 (10 nmol/2 µl) significantly inhibited the anti-immobility effect of Lu AA33810 in the FST in rats, suggesting that MAPK/ERK and PI3K signaling pathways could be involved in the antidepressant-like effect of Lu AA33810. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that Lu AA33810 exerts an antidepressant-like effect and suggest the Y5 receptors as a promising target for antidepressant therapy.

Involvement of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in the short and long-lasting antidepressant-like activity of NMDA receptor antagonists (zinc and Ro 25-6981) in the forced swim test in rats.

Short and long acting NMDA receptor (NMDAR) antagonists exert their antidepressant-like effects by activating signaling pathways involved in the synthesis of synaptic proteins and formation of new synaptic connections in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of rats. The blockade of the ERK pathway abolishes ketamine and Ro 25-6981 antidepressant potency. However, the role of ERK in the antidepressant-like activity of short acting NMDAR antagonists is still unclear. More puzzling is the fact that the precise role of ERK in the short and long lasting effects of long-acting NMDAR antagonists is unknown. In this study, we show that zinc, (Zn) a short-acting NMDAR antagonist evokes only transient ERK activation, which is observed 7 min after its administration in the PFC of rats. In contrast to Zn, the long acting NMDAR antagonist Ro 25-6981 produces persistent ERK activation lasting up to 24 h. Pretreatment with the MAPK/ERK inhibitor (U0126) totally abolished Zn and Ro 25-6981 antidepressant-like activities in the forced swim test in rats. However, when U0126 is administered 15 min after Zn or Ro 25-6981 both compounds maintain their short-lasting antidepressant-like activity. On the other hand, posttreatment with U0126 significantly attenuated the long lasting antidepressant-like activity of Ro 25-6981. These results indicate that the activation of ERK is crucial for the short- and long lasting antidepressant-like activity observed in the FST in rats.

The level of the zinc homeostasis regulating proteins in the brain of rats subjected to olfactory bulbectomy model of depression.

BACKGROUND: Zinc transporters (ZnTs) and metallothioneins (MT) are important in maintaining Zn homeostasis in the brain. The present study was designed to find out whether alterations in ZnTs and MTs are associated with the pathophysiology of depression and the mechanism of antidepressant action. METHODS: Messenger RNA and proteins of ZnT1, ZnT3, ZnT4, ZnT5, ZnT6 and MT1/2 were measured in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (Hp) of rats subjected to olfactory bulbectomy (OB) (a model of depression) and chronic amitriptyline (AMI) treatment by Real Time PCR and Western Blot/Immunohistochemistry (IHP). RESULTS: Results in the OB rats showed: increases in the protein levels of ZnT1 in the PFC and Hp and MT1/2 in the PFC; a decrease in ZnT3 protein level in the PFC; no changes in ZnT4, ZnT5 and ZnT6 in the PFC and Hp. IHP labeling revealed increases in the optical densities of ZnT1-IR in the PFC and Hp and decreases in ZnT3 and ZnT4-IR in the PFC of OB rats. Although OB had no effects on gene expression of ZnTs, mRNAs for MT1/2 were increased. Chronic AMI treatment did not influence protein levels of ZnTs and MT1/2 in Sham and OB rats; however decreased mRNA levels of ZnT4 and ZnT5 in PFC and ZnT1, ZnT3, ZnT4 and ZnT6 in Hp of Sham rats and normalized OB induced increase in MT1/2 gene expression. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in ZnTs and MT1/2 suggest altered cortical distribution of Zn in the OB model which further supports the hypothesis that Zn dyshomeostasis may be involved in the pathophysiology of depression.

Brain glutamic acid decarboxylase-67kDa alterations induced by magnesium treatment in olfactory bulbectomy and chronic mild stress models in rats.

BACKGROUND: The preclinical results indicate that magnesium, an N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) blocker has anxiolytic and antidepressant-like activity. One of the mechanisms involved in these activities is modulation of glutamate, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system. Based on this, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of magnesium on the level of glutamic acid decarboxylase-67kDa (GAD-67) in the different brain areas in the chronic mild stress (CMS) and olfactory bulbectomy (OB) models of depression in rats. METHODS: Magnesium (15mg/kg) was administered intraperitonealy once daily for 14 days in the OB model and for 35 days in the CMS model. 24h after the last dose, the prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus and amygdala were collected and the GAD-67 protein level was determined by the western blotting method. RESULTS: In the OB model, chronic magnesium treatment normalized decreased by OB protein level of GAD-67 in PFC. CMS did not influence the GAD-67 protein level, however magnesium increased GAD-67 protein expression in amygdala and PFC of stress rats when compared to vehicle-treated stress group. OB or CMS models as well as magnesium treatment did not affect GAD-67 protein level in the hippocampus. CONCLUSIONS: Obtained results indicate that the antidepressant-like activity of magnesium in CMS and OB models of depression is associated with an enhanced expression of GAD-67 in the PFC and amygdala.

Group II mGlu receptor antagonist LY341495 enhances the antidepressant-like effects of ketamine in the forced swim test in rats.

RATIONALE: Numerous preclinical and clinical studies have reported the rapid and sustained antidepressant effects of the NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine. Because ketamine induces several undesirable and dangerous effects, a variety of strategies have been suggested to avoid such effects. OBJECTIVES: Here, we propose to enhance the sub-effective doses of ketamine by co-administration with the group II metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor antagonist LY341495. This compound potentially acts as an antidepressant via a mechanism similar to that of ketamine. METHODS: To investigate the rapid and sustained antidepressant-like effects of these drugs, we administered ketamine and LY341495 individually or in combination, 40 min and 24 h before the forced swim test (FST). RESULTS: We found that sub-effective doses of ketamine and LY341495, given jointly, induce significant antidepressant-like effects, at both 40 min and 24 h after administration. The results obtained using Western blot technique indicate that mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway activation may be involved in the mechanism of this action. The effects of drugs, used at identical ranges of times and doses, on spontaneous locomotor activity in rats were excluded. Furthermore, the results obtained from the rota-rod test and the ketamine-induced hyperlocomotion test suggest a lack of potentially adverse effects from the combined administration of ketamine and LY341495 at doses previously used in the FST. CONCLUSION: Altogether, these data suggest that the joint administration of ketamine and LY341495 might be a noteworthy alternative to the use of solely ketamine in the therapy of depression.

Concentration-Dependent Dual Mode of Zn Action at Serotonin 5-HT1A Receptors: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies.

Recent data has indicated that Zn can modulate serotonergic function through the 5-HT1A receptor (5-HT1AR); however, the exact mechanisms are unknown. In the present studies, radioligand binding assays and behavioural approaches were used to characterize the pharmacological profile of Zn at 5-HT1ARs in more detail. The influence of Zn on agonist binding to 5-HT1ARs stably expressed in HEK293 cells was investigated by in vitro radioligand binding methods using the agonist [3H]-8-OH-DPAT. The in vivo effects of Zn were compared with those of 8-OH-DPAT in hypothermia, lower lip retraction (LLR), 5-HT behavioural syndrome and the forced swim (FST) tests. In the in vitro studies, biphasic effects, which involved allosteric potentiation of agonist binding at sub-micromolar Zn concentrations and inhibition at sub-millimolar Zn concentrations, were found. The in vivo studies showed that Zn did not induce LLR or elements of 5-HT behavioural syndrome but blocked such effects induced by 8-OH-DPAT. Zn decreased body temperature in rats and mice; however, Zn failed to induce hypothermia in the 5-HT1A autoreceptor knockout mice. In the FST, Zn potentiated the effect of 8-OH-DPAT. However, in the FST performed with the 5-HT1A autoreceptor knockout mice, the anti-immobility effect of Zn was partially blocked. Both the binding and behavioural studies suggest a concentration-dependent dual mechanism of Zn action at 5-HT1ARs, with potentiation at low dose and inhibition at high dose. Moreover, the in vivo studies indicate that Zn can modulate both presynaptic and postsynaptic 5-HT1ARs; however, Zn's effects at presynaptic receptors seem to be more potent.

Activation of mTOR dependent signaling pathway is a necessary mechanism of antidepressant-like activity of zinc.

The rapid antidepressant response to the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists is mediated by activation of the mammalian target of the rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway, an increase in the synthesis of synaptic proteins and formation of new synapses in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of rats. Zinc (Zn), which is a potent NMDA receptor antagonist, exerts antidepressant-like effects in screening tests and models of depression. We focused these studies in investigating whether activation of the mTOR signaling pathway is also a necessary mechanism of the antidepressant-like activity of Zn. We observed that a single injection of Zn (5 mg/kg) induced an increase in the phosphorylation of mTOR and p70S6K 30 min and 3 h after Zn treatment at time points when Zn produced also an antidepressant-like effect in the forced swim test (FST). Furthermore, Zn administered 3 h before the decapitation increased the level of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), GluA1 and synapsin I. An elevated level of GluA1 and synapsin I was still observed 24 h after the Zn treatment, although Zn did not produce any effects in the FST at that time point. We also observed that pretreatment with rapamycin (mTORC1 inhibitor), LY294002 (PI3K inhibitor), H-89 (PKA inhibitor) and GF109203X (PKC inhibitor) blocked the antidepressant-like effect of Zn in FST in rats and blocks Zn-induced activation of mTOR signaling proteins (analyzed 30 min after Zn administration). These studies indicated that the antidepressant-like activity of Zn depends on the activation of mTOR signaling and other signaling pathways related to neuroplasticity, which can indirectly modulate mTOR function.

Antidepressant-like activity of magnesium in the olfactory bulbectomy model is associated with the AMPA/BDNF pathway.

RATIONALE: Numerous studies suggest agents that act on glutamatergic transmission as potential antidepressants. Preclinical and clinical evidence suggests that magnesium, an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor blocker, may be useful in the treatment of depression. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of magnesium on behavior; protein levels of GluN2A, GluN2B [N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunits], GluA1 [α-amino-3-hydroxy-5 methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) subunit], phospho-Ser-831-GluA1 (P-S831), phospho-Ser-845-GluA1 (P-S845), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF); and messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of GluN2A and GluN2B in different brain areas in the olfactory bulbectomy (OB) model of depression in rats. METHODS: Magnesium was administered once daily for 14 days at three doses (10, 15, and 20 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) to sham and OB rats. Following treatment, open field and passive avoidance tests were performed in the sham and OB rats. After 24 h, the hippocampus, the prefrontal cortex (PFC), and the amygdala of rats treated with the most active dose (15 mg/kg) were harvested, and the protein and mRNA levels were determined. RESULTS: Chronic administration of magnesium (15 and 20 mg/kg) reduced the number of trials required to learn passive avoidance and reduced the OB-induced hyperactivity. OB increased the P-S845 level in the hippocampus, which was reduced by magnesium treatment. Magnesium significantly increased the levels of BDNF, GluN2B, P-S831, and P-S845 protein (and mRNA) primarily in the PFC and the hippocampus in OB rats. CONCLUSION: For the first time, the present results demonstrate the antidepressant-like activity of magnesium in the OB animal model of depression and indicate the potential involvement of the AMPA/BDNF pathway in this activity.