Detection of endometrial cancer using tampon-based collection and methylated DNA markers.

OBJECTIVE: Alterations in DNA methylation are early events in endometrial cancer (EC) development and may have utility in EC detection via tampon-collected vaginal fluid. METHODS: For discovery, DNA from frozen EC, benign endometrium (BE), and benign cervicovaginal (BCV) tissues underwent reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS) to identify differentially methylated regions (DMRs). Candidate DMRs were selected based on receiver operating characteristic (ROC) discrimination, methylation level fold-change between cancers and controls, and absence of background CpG methylation. Methylated DNA marker (MDM) validation was performed using qMSP on DNA from independent EC and BE FFPE tissue sets. Women ≥45 years of age with abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) or postmenopausal bleeding (PMB) or any age with biopsy-proven EC self-collected vaginal fluid using a tampon prior to clinically indicated endometrial sampling or hysterectomy. Vaginal fluid DNA was assayed by qMSP for EC-associated MDMs. Random forest modeling analysis was performed to generate predictive probability of underlying disease; results were 500-fold in-silico cross-validated. RESULTS: Thirty-three candidate MDMs met performance criteria in tissue. For the tampon pilot, 100 EC cases were frequency matched by menopausal status and tampon collection date to 92 BE controls. A 28-MDM panel highly discriminated between EC and BE (96% (95%CI 89-99%) specificity; 76% (66-84%) sensitivity (AUC 0.88). In PBS/EDTA tampon buffer, the panel yielded 96% (95% CI 87-99%) specificity and 82% (70-91%) sensitivity (AUC 0.91). CONCLUSION: Next generation methylome sequencing, stringent filtering criteria, and independent validation yielded excellent candidate MDMs for EC. EC-associated MDMs performed with promisingly high sensitivity and specificity in tampon-collected vaginal fluid; PBS-based tampon buffer with added EDTA improved sensitivity. Larger tampon-based EC MDM testing studies are warranted.

PP2A and E3 ubiquitin ligase deficiencies: Seminal biological drivers in endometrial cancer.

OBJECTIVE: PI3K-AKT pathway mutations initiate a kinase cascade that characterizes endometrial cancer (EC). As kinases seldom cause oncogenic transformation without dysregulation of antagonistic phosphatases, pivotal interactions governing this pathway were explored and correlated with clinical outcomes. METHODS: After exclusion of patients with POLE mutations from The Cancer Genome Atlas EC cohort with endometrioid or serous EC, the study population was 209 patients with DNA sequencing, quantitative gene-specific RNA expression, copy number variation (CNV), and surveillance data available. Extracted data were annotated and integrated. RESULTS: A PIK3CA, PTEN, or PIK3R1 mutant (-mu) was present in 83% of patients; 57% harbored more than 1 mutation without adversely impacting progression-free survival (PFS) (P = .10). PIK3CA CNV of at least 1.1 (CNV high [-H]) was detected in 26% and linked to TP53-mu and CIP2A expression (P < .001) but was not associated with PFS (P = .24). PIK3CA expression was significantly different between those with CIP2A-H and CIP2A low (-L) expression (the endogenous inhibitor of protein phosphatase 2A [PP2A]), when stratified by PIK3CA mutational status or by PIK3CA CNV-H and CNV-L (all P < .01). CIP2A-H or PPP2R1A-mu mitigates PP2A kinase dephosphorylation, and FBXW7-mu nullifies E3 ubiquitin ligase (E3UL) oncoprotein degradation. CIP2A-H and PPP2R1A-mu (PP2A impairment) and FBXW7-mu (E3UL impairment) were associated with compromised PFS (P < .001) and were prognostically discriminatory for PIK3CA-mu and PIK3CA CNV-H tumors (P < .001). Among documented recurrences, 84% were associated with impaired PP2A (75%) and/or E3UL (20%). CONCLUSION: PP2A and E3UL deficiencies are seminal biological drivers in EC independent of PIK3CA-mu, PTEN-mu, and PIK3R1-mu and PIK3CA CNV.

Combining copy number, methylation markers, and mutations as a panel for endometrial cancer detection via intravaginal tampon collection.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to assess whether endometrial cancer (EC) can be detected in shed DNA collected with vaginal tampon by analyzing copy number, methylation markers, and mutations. METHODS: Tampons were collected prior to hysterectomy from 38 EC patients and 28 women with benign indications. Extracted tampon DNA underwent the following: 1) low-coverage whole genome sequencing (LC-WGS) to assess copy number, 2) pyrosequencing to measure percent promotor methylation of HOXA9, RASSF1, and CDH13 and 3) next generation sequencing (NGS) to identify mutations in 19 genes associated with EC identified through The Cancer Genome Atlas. Sensitivity and specificity for each test and test combinations were calculated. RESULTS: Methylation analysis yielded the highest specificities but lowest sensitivities (37-40% sensitivity; 100% specificity for HOXA9, RASSF1 and HTR1B) while mutation analysis had improved sensitivity (50% sensitivity; 83% specificity). Only one "false positive" result for copy number variants was identified among women with benign surgical indications, which was based on detection of copy number changes, and associated with a leiomyosarcoma that was only recognized at hysterectomy. Considering any of the 3 biomarker classes as a positive, resulted in a sensitivity of 92% and specificity of 86%. Mutation analysis did not add sensitivity to the combination of analysis of copy number and methylation. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates a proof-of-principle for non-invasive yet precise detection of endometrial cancer. We propose that with improved biomarker testing, it may be possible to develop a clinically useful test for detecting EC.

A prospective clinical cohort study of women at increased risk for endometrial cancer.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate endometrial cancer (EC) risk assessment and early detection strategies in high-risk populations, we designed a large, prospective cohort study of women undergoing endometrial evaluation to assess risk factors and collect novel biospecimens for future testing of emerging EC biomarkers. Here we report on the baseline findings of this study. METHODS: Women aged ≥45 years were enrolled at the Mayo Clinic from February 2013-June 2018. Risk factors included age, body mass index (BMI), smoking, oral contraceptive and hormone therapy use, and parity. We collected vaginal tampons, endometrial biopsies, and Tao brush samples. We estimated mutually-adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) using multinomial logistic regression; outcomes included EC, atypical hyperplasia, hyperplasia without atypia, disordered proliferative endometrium, and polyps, versus normal endometrium. RESULTS: Subjects included 1205 women with a mean age of 55 years; 55% were postmenopausal, and 90% had abnormal uterine bleeding. The prevalence of EC was 4.1% (n = 49), predominantly diagnosed in postmenopausal women (85.7%). Tampons and Tao brushings were obtained from 99% and 68% of women, respectively. Age (OR 1.14, 95% CI 1.1-1.2) and BMI (OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.1-1.7) were positively associated with EC; atypical hyperplasia (OR 1.07, 95% CI 1.0-1.1; OR 2.00, 95% CI 1.5-2.6, respectively), and polyps (OR 1.06, 95% CI 1.0-1.1; OR 1.17, 95% CI 1.0-1.3, respectively); hormone therapy use and smoking were inversely associated with EC (OR 0.42, 95%, 0.2-0.9; OR 0.43, 95% CI, 0.2-0.9, respectively). Parity and past oral contraception use were not associated with EC. CONCLUSIONS: Well-established EC risk factors may have less discriminatory accuracy in high-risk populations. Future analyses will integrate risk factor assessment with biomarker testing for EC detection.

Risk assessment of endometrial cancer and endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia in women with abnormal bleeding and implications for clinical management algorithms.

BACKGROUND: Most endometrial cancer cases are preceded by abnormal uterine bleeding, offering a potential opportunity for early detection and cure of endometrial cancer. Although clinical guidelines exist for diagnostic workup of abnormal uterine bleeding, consensus is lacking regarding optimal management for women with abnormal bleeding to diagnose endometrial cancer. OBJECTIVE: We report the baseline data from a prospective clinical cohort study of women referred for endometrial evaluation at the Mayo Clinic, designed to evaluate risk stratification in women at increased risk for endometrial cancer. Here, we introduce a risk-based approach to evaluate diagnostic tests and clinical management algorithms in a population of women with abnormal bleeding undergoing endometrial evaluation at the Mayo Clinic. STUDY DESIGN: A total of 1163 women aged ≥45 years were enrolled from February 2013 to May 2019. We evaluated baseline absolute risks and 95% confidence intervals of endometrial cancer and endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia according to clinical algorithms for diagnostic workup of women with postmenopausal bleeding (assessment of initial vs recurrent bleeding episode and endometrial thickness measured through transvaginal ultrasound). We also evaluated risks among women with postmenopausal bleeding according to baseline age (<60 vs 60+ years) as an alternative example. For this approach, biopsy would be conducted for all women aged 60+ years and those aged <60 years with an endometrial thickness of >4 mm. We assessed the clinical efficiency of each strategy by estimating the percentage of women who would be referred for endometrial biopsy, the percentage of cases detected and missed, and the ratio of biopsies per case detected. RESULTS: Among the 593 women with postmenopausal bleeding, 18 (3.0%) had endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia, and 47 (7.9%) had endometrial cancer, and among the 570 premenopausal women with abnormal bleeding, 8 (1.4%) had endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia, and 7 (1.2%) had endometrial cancer. Maximum risk was noted in women aged 60+ years (17.7%; 13.0%-22.3%), followed by those with recurrent bleeding (14.7%; 11.0%-18.3%). Among women with an initial bleeding episode for whom transvaginal ultrasound was recommended, endometrial thickness did not provide meaningful risk stratification: risks of endometrial cancer and endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia were nearly identical in women with an endometrial thickness of >4 mm (5.8%; 1.3%-10.3%) and ≤4 mm (3.6%; 0.9%-8.6%). In contrast, among those aged <60 years with an endometrial thickness of >4 mm, the risk of endometrial cancer and endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia was 8.4% (4.3%-12.5%), and in those with an endometrial thickness of ≤4 mm, the risk was 0% (0.0%-3.0%; P=.01). The most efficient strategy was to perform biopsy in all women aged 60+ years and among those aged <60 years with an endometrial thickness of >4 mm, with the lowest percentage referred to biopsy while still detecting all cases. CONCLUSION: Existing clinical recommendations for endometrial cancer detection in women with abnormal bleeding are not consistent with the underlying risk. Endometrial cancer risk factors such as age can provide important risk stratification compared with the assessment of recurrent bleeding. Future research will include a formal assessment of clinical and epidemiologic risk prediction models in our study population as well as validation of our findings in other populations.

Comparing risk stratification criteria for predicting lymphatic dissemination in endometrial cancer.

OBJECTIVE: To compare two published risk stratification models (Milwaukee Model vs. Mayo Criteria) to predict lymphatic dissemination (LD) in endometrioid endometrial cancer (EC). METHODS: Patients with stage I-III EC undergoing surgery from 1/1/2004-9/30/2013 were retrospectively reviewed and classified as low-risk vs at-risk for LD using two independent risk models. LD was defined as positive nodes at surgery or lymph node recurrence within 2 years of surgery after negative lymph node dissection (LND) or when LND was not performed. False positive (FP) and false negative (FN) rates for each risk model were calculated. RESULTS: Among 1103 patients, 81 (7.3%) had LD (72 positive LN and 9 LN recurrences), and most (90.2%) had stage I EC. The Milwaukee Model yielded a low at-risk rate for LD (38.1%) but a high FN rate (13.6%, 95% CI 7.0-23.0). The traditional Mayo Criteria using a cut-off of 2 cm for tumor diameter (TD) had a higher at-risk rate for LD (69.5%) but a FN rate of 0% (95% CI, 0-4.5). Modifying the Mayo Criteria using a TD cutoff of ≤3 cm identified fewer women at-risk (56.8% vs. 69.5%) and had a lower FP rate (53.6% vs. 67.1%), but had a higher FN rate (3.7%, 95% CI, 0.8-10.4). CONCLUSIONS: The Milwaukee Model had the lowest at-risk rate of LD but an unacceptable FN rate. Modifying the Mayo Criteria by increasing the TD cutoff from the traditional ≤2 cm to ≤3 cm would spare an estimated 13.5% of patients LND, but the accompanying FN rate is unacceptably high. The traditional Mayo Criteria for low-risk EC remains the most sensitive in determining which patients LND can be omitted.

Uterine serous carcinoma: Reassessing effectiveness of platinum-based adjuvant therapy.

OBJECTIVE: Two randomized trials failed to demonstrate efficacy of platinum-based chemotherapy (PbCT) for uterine serous carcinoma (USC). Our objective was to reassess the value of PbCT for patients with microscopic residuum (R0). METHODS: Progression-free survival (PFS) after surgery was analyzed for 409 patients and correlated with adjuvant therapies: vaginal brachytherapy (VBRT), external beam radiotherapy (EBRT), PbCT, or combinations. RESULTS: The estimated 5-year PFS for stage I (n=209) USC was 65.1% for observation only; 90.7%, VBRT only; and 91.1%, PbCT±VBRT (85% received VBRT); VBRT significantly (P=.004) impacted PFS, but the added value of PbCT remains uncertain. Of 58 stage IIIC, PbCT-treated patients (±EBRT), 5-year PFS was 33.9%; most failures had a vascular disseminated component. Median PFS for 72 stage IV, PbCT-treated patients was 18.6months for R0; 8.0, R1≤1cm residual disease; and 4.6, R2>1cm (P=.008). The progression rate (PR) during 1 to 2year follow-up for R0 was similar to PR during 0-1year follow-up for R1 (P=.31), suggesting recurrences in patients with R0 disease before 2years are likely platinum resistant. PRs during follow-up were nearly identical for R0≥2years and R1≥1year (P=.95), presumably showing limited numbers of platinum-sensitive tumors. CONCLUSIONS: A comparison of PR for patients treated with PbCT for stage IV R0 and R1 disease suggested that a 1-year lag interval precedes clinical recognition of PbCT refractory/resistant R0 disease. Most patients treated with PbCT who had microscopic residuum had recurrences within 2years (across stages), emphasizing the need for more effective therapy.

The effect of diabetes and metformin on clinical outcomes is negligible in risk-adjusted endometrial cancer cohorts.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the influence of diabetes and metformin therapy on overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) in patients with endometrial cancer (EC) by using propensity score (PS) matching to account for confounding factors. METHODS: We retrospectively identified consecutive patients with stage I-IV EC managed surgically from 1999 through 2008 and stratified patients by diabetes status. PS matching was used to adjust for confounding covariates. OS and PFS were compared between diabetic and nondiabetic matched pairs and between matched pairs of diabetic patients with or without metformin therapy. Cox proportional hazards models were fit to estimate the effects on outcomes. RESULTS: Among 1303 eligible patients (79% stage I, 28% grade 3), 277 (21.3%) had a history of diabetes. Among diabetic patients, treatment consisted of metformin in 116 (41.9%); 57 (20.6%) had other oral agents, 51 (18.4%) insulin with or without other oral agents, and 53 (19.1%) diet modification only. For PS-matched diabetic and nondiabetic patients with EC, OS (hazard ratio [HR], 1.01; 95% CI, 0.72-1.42) and PFS (HR, 1.01; 95% CI, 0.60-1.69) were similar between matched subsets. No differences in OS and PFS were observed when comparing PS-matched metformin users with nondiabetic patients (OS HR, 1.03; 95% CI, 0.57-1.85; PFS HR, 1.14; 95% CI, 0.49-2.62) or with other diabetic patients (OS HR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.30-1.23; PFS HR, 1.06; 95% CI, 0.34-3.30). CONCLUSIONS: When adjusted for confounding covariates, OS and PFS are similar between diabetic and nondiabetic patients with EC and between metformin users and nonusers or nondiabetic patients.

Primary brain metastases of endometrial cancer: A report of 18 cases and review of the literature.

OBJECTIVE: To present a series of brain metastases from endometrial cancer (EC) and describe a comprehensive review of the literature. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed medical records of 1) patients with cerebral dissemination of EC treated at Mayo Clinic from 1984 to 2001 and 2) all patients referred for treatment of primary brain metastases after primary treatment for EC elsewhere. We also reviewed published case reports and case series describing cerebral spread of EC. RESULTS: Among the 1632 patients treated at Mayo, 14 (0.86%) had primary brain dissemination; 4 additional referral cases were identified (total, 18 patients). In 2 cases (11.1%), diagnosis of brain metastases was made at presentation of EC; in the others, median time to development of brain metastasis was 5 (range, 1-57) months. Median survival was 57 (range, 7-118) months in patients with single cerebral metastases and no extracerebral involvement (n=6); for the remaining 12 patients, median survival was 4 (range, 0-28) months. Among the 6 patients with single brain metastases, complete surgical excision was possible in 5; in that group, the overall survival was 64 (range, 12-118) months. We identified 98 cases of brain metastases of EC in the literature: 58 were primary cerebral metastases. Overall survival after brain dissemination was significantly higher in patients with a single metastasis without other localization and receiving multimodal treatment including surgery and whole-brain radiotherapy. CONCLUSIONS: Single primary brain metastases without extracerebral spread seem to have a relatively favorable prognosis. Aggressive multimodal treatment may include surgery and brain radiation.

Risk-adjusted outcomes in elderly endometrial cancer patients: implications of the contrasting impact of age on progression-free and cause-specific survival.

OBJECTIVE: To reexamine the tenet that advanced age independently impacts progression-free and cause-specific survival in patients with endometrial cancer (EC). METHODS: Patients undergoing surgery for stages I-IIIC EC between 1999 and 2008 were stratified by age (<70 vs ≥70years). Three propensity score (PS) methods were utilized to adjust for confounding risk factors. The PS, or conditional probability of being ≥70years old, given a patient's baseline covariates, was derived using logistic regression. The Cox proportional hazards models were fit to estimate the effect of age≥70years on outcomes. RESULTS: Of 1182 eligible patients, 822 (69.5%) were <70 and 360 (30.5%) were ≥70. Patients ≥70 were more likely to have multiple adverse risk factors. The total standardized difference of these factors was reduced by 74% and 81%, respectively, using PS-stratification and PS-matching analyses. The nonsignificant trend toward an association between progression-free survival and age≥70 in an unadjusted analysis (hazard ratio [HR], 1.40; 95% CI, 0.95-2.04) was further attenuated in the 3 PS analyses. The unadjusted HR for the association between age≥70 and cause-specific survival was 2.03 (95% CI, 1.32-3.13). HRs were attenuated in PS analyses but retained significance (except for PS matching), potentially reflecting differences in salvage therapies (P<.001), including a 3-fold greater use of chemotherapy in those <70. CONCLUSION: When risk-adjusted for the higher prevalence of adverse prognostic factors in elderly EC patients, progression-free survival after primary therapy is not age dependent but the less favorable cause-specific survival in this cohort may reflect age-related postrecurrence treatment differences.

Detection of endometrial cancer via molecular analysis of DNA collected with vaginal tampons.

OBJECTIVE: We demonstrate the feasibility of detecting EC by combining minimally-invasive specimen collection techniques with sensitive molecular testing. METHODS: Prior to hysterectomy for EC or benign indications, women collected vaginal pool samples with intravaginal tampons and underwent endometrial brushing. Specimens underwent pyrosequencing for DNA methylation of genes reported to be hypermethylated in gynecologic cancers and recently identified markers discovered by profiling over 200 ECs. Methylation was evaluated individually across CpGs and averaged across genes. Differences between EC and benign endometrium (BE) were assessed using two-sample t-tests and area under the curve (AUC). RESULTS: Thirty-eight ECs and 28 BEs were included. We evaluated 97 CpGs within 12 genes, including previously reported markers (RASSF1, HSP2A, HOXA9, CDH13, HAAO, and GTF2A1) and those identified in discovery work (ASCL2, HTR1B, NPY, HS3ST2, MME, ADCYAP1, and additional CDH13 CpG sites). Mean methylation was higher in tampon specimens from EC v. BE for 9 of 12 genes (ADCYAP1, ASCL2, CDH13, HS3ST2, HTR1B, MME, HAAO, HOXA9, and RASSF1) (all p<0.05). Among these genes, relative hypermethylation was observed in EC v. BE across CpGs. Endometrial brush and tampon results were similar. Within tampon specimens, AUC was highest for HTR1B (0.82), RASSF1 (0.75), and HOXA9 (0.74). This is the first report of HOXA9 hypermethylation in EC. CONCLUSION: DNA hypermethylation in EC tissues can also be identified in vaginal pool DNA collected via intravaginal tampon. Identification of additional EC biomarkers and refined collection methods are needed to develop an early detection tool for EC.

Distribution and volume of extrauterine disease in uterine serous carcinoma: is minimally invasive surgery a suitable approach?

OBJECTIVE: Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) is the preferred technique for managing endometrial cancer. Given that uterine serous carcinoma (USC) has a predilection for multiquadrant peritoneal dissemination, our objective was to estimate the potential risk for overlooking occult peritoneal spread with the use of MIS. METHODS: A single-institution, retrospective review was conducted of patients who underwent primary surgical staging for endometrial cancer via laparotomy between 1999 and 2008. Patterns of metastases were analyzed to estimate the potential risk for understaging via MIS. RESULTS: A total of 202 USC cases met inclusion criteria. Pelvic and para-aortic nodes were positive in 59 (36%) of 166 and 43 (31%) of 138, respectively. Stage IVb disease was diagnosed in 77 (38%) of 202 patients. The majority (86%, 66/77) harbored bulky and/or multisite macroscopic abdominal implants. Isolated microscopic peritoneal disease was present in 5 of 77 cases (6% of stage IV, 2% of the entire cohort) but, in all cases, was limited to the omentum; 6 of 77 cases (8% of stage IV, 3% of the cohort) harbored a single implant in the context of a negative omentum but, in all cases, were macroscopic (locations included the ileum, the diaphragm, and the base of the mesentery). CONCLUSIONS: For providers who aim to remove all visible disease in patients with USC, the rate of extrauterine disease escaping detection using MIS is low (<3%) provided an omentectomy is performed together with staging.

Microarray analysis on gene regulation by estrogen, progesterone and tamoxifen in human endometrial stromal cells.

Epithelial stromal cells represent a major cellular component of human uterine endometrium that is subject to tight hormonal regulation. Through cell-cell contacts and/or paracrine mechanisms, stromal cells play a significant role in the malignant transformation of epithelial cells. We isolated stromal cells from normal human endometrium and investigated the morphological and transcriptional changes induced by estrogen, progesterone and tamoxifen. We demonstrated that stromal cells express appreciable levels of estrogen and progesterone receptors and undergo different morphological changes upon hormonal stimulation. Microarray analysis indicated that both estrogen and progesterone induced dramatic alterations in a variety of genes associated with cell structure, transcription, cell cycle, and signaling. However, divergent patterns of changes, and in some genes opposite effects, were observed for the two hormones. A large number of genes are identified as novel targets for hormonal regulation. These hormone-responsive genes may be involved in normal uterine function and the development of endometrial malignancies.

Prospective assessment of the prevalence of pelvic, paraaortic and high paraaortic lymph node metastasis in endometrial cancer.

OBJECTIVE: To prospectively define the prevalence of lymph node metastasis (LNM) in at risk endometrial cancer (EC). METHODS: From 2004 to 2008, frozen section based Mayo Criteria prospectively identified patients "not at-risk" of LNM (30% EC population; grade I/II, <50% myometrial invasion and tumor diameter ≤ 2 cm) where lymphadenectomy was not recommended. The remaining 70% EC cohort was considered "at-risk" of LNM; where a systematic pelvic and infrarenal paraaortic lymphadenectomy was recommended. Patients were prospectively followed. The area between renal vein and inferior mesenteric artery (IMA) was labeled as high paraaortic area. For calculating the prevalence of LNM in high paraaortic area, the denominator was the population with known anatomic location of nodal tissue in relation to the IMA. RESULTS: Of the 742 patients, 514 were at risk; of which 89% underwent recommended lymphadenectomy. A mean (± standard deviation) of 36 (± 14) pelvic and 18 (± 9) paraaortic nodes were harvested. The prevalence of pelvic and paraaortic LNM was 17% and 12%, respectively. In presence of pelvic LNM, 51% had paraaortic LNM. In absence of pelvic LNM, 3% had paraaortic LNM; of which 67% was located exclusively in high paraaortic area. Among patients with paraaortic LNM, 88% had high paraaortic LNM; and 35% had only high paraaortic LNM. The cases of paraaortic LNM with negative pelvic nodes seemed to cluster in moderate to high grade endometrioid EC with ≥ 50% myometrial invasion. CONCLUSION: We present reference data for the prevalence of LNM in at-risk EC patients to guide lymphadenectomy decisions for clinical and research purposes.

Efficacy of contemporary chemotherapy in stage IIIC endometrial cancer: a histologic dichotomy.

BACKGROUND: Treatment failures in stage IIIC endometrial carcinoma (EC) are predominantly due to occult extrapelvic metastases (EPM). The impact of chemotherapy on occult EPM was investigated according to grade (G), G1/2EC vs G3EC. METHODS: All surgical-stage IIIC EC cases from January 1, 1999, through December 31, 2008, from Mayo Clinic were included. Patient-, disease-, and treatment-specific risk factors were assessed for association with overall survival, cause-specific survival, and extrapelvic disease-free survival (DFS) using Cox proportional hazards regression. RESULTS: 109 cases met criteria, with 92 (84%) having systematic lymphadenectomy (>10 pelvic and >5 paraaortic lymph nodes resected). In patients with documented recurrence sites, occult EPM accounted for 88%. Among G1/2EC cases (n=48), the sole independent predictor of extrapelvic DFS was grade 2 histology (hazard ratio [HR], 0.28; 95% CI, 0.08-0.91; P=.03) while receipt of adjuvant chemotherapy approached significance (HR 0.13; 95% CI, 0.02, 1.01; P=.0511). The 5-year extrapelvic DFS with and without adjuvant chemotherapy was 93% and 54%, respectively (log-rank, P=.02). Among G3EC (n=61), the sole independent predictor of extrapelvic DFS was lymphovascular space involvement (HR, 2.63; 95% CI, 1.16-5.97; P=.02). Adjuvant chemotherapy did not affect occult EPM in G3EC; the 5-year extrapelvic DFS for G3EC with and without adjuvant chemotherapy was 43% and 42%, respectively (log-rank, P=.91). CONCLUSIONS: Chemotherapy improves extrapelvic DFS for stage IIIC G1/2EC but not stage IIIC G3EC. Future efforts should focus on prospectively assessing the impact of chemotherapy on DFS in G3EC and developing innovative phase I and II trials of novel systemic therapies for advanced G3EC.

Risk-scoring models for individualized prediction of overall survival in low-grade and high-grade endometrial cancer.

OBJECTIVE: Overall survival (OS) in endometrial cancer (EC) is dependent on patient-, disease-, and treatment-specific risk factors. Comprehensive risk-scoring models were developed to estimate OS in low-grade and high-grade EC. METHODS: Patients undergoing primary surgery for EC from 1999 through 2008 were stratified histologically according to the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) as either (i) low grade: grades 1 and 2 endometrioid EC or (ii) high grade: grade 3, including non-endometrioid EC. Associations between patient-, pathological-, and treatment-specific risk factors and OS starting on postoperative day 30 were assessed using multivariable Cox regression models. Factors independently associated with OS were used to construct nomograms and risk-scoring models. RESULTS: Eligible patients (N=1281) included 925 low-grade and 356 high-grade patients; estimated 5-year OSs were 87.0% and 51.5%, respectively. Among patients alive at last follow-up, median follow-up was 5.0 (low grade) and 4.6years (high grade), respectively. In low-grade patients, independent factors predictive of compromised OS included age, cardiovascular disease, pulmonary dysfunction, stage, tumor diameter, pelvic lymph node status, and grade 2 or higher 30-day postoperative complications. Among high-grade patients, age, American Society of Anesthesiologists score, stage, lymphovascular space invasion, adjuvant therapy, para-aortic nodal status, and cervical stromal invasion were independent predictors of compromised OS. The two risk-scoring models/nomograms had excellent calibration and discrimination (unbiased c-indices=0.803 and 0.759). CONCLUSION: Patients with low-grade and high-grade EC can be counseled regarding their predicted OS using the proposed risk-scoring models. This may facilitate institution of personalized treatment algorithms, surveillance strategies, and lifestyle interventions.

Bone metastases in endometrial cancer: report on 19 patients and review of the medical literature.

OBJECTIVE: Because few cases of bone metastases of endometrial cancer have been reported, and information is scarce on their incidence, treatment, prognosis, and outcomes, we sought to compile a series of bone metastases of endometrial cancer and to systematically review the medical literature. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed medical records of patients who had osseous metastases of endometrial cancer treated initially at Mayo Clinic (1984-2001), and of all patients who were referred for treatment of primary bone metastases after primary treatment for endometrial cancer elsewhere. RESULTS: Of 1632 patients with endometrial cancer, 13 (0.8%) had primary bone dissemination and 6 (0.4%) were referred after initial treatment. Three (15.8%) of these 19 had bone metastases at presentation; in the rest, median time to recurrence was 19.5 months (range, 3-114). The most common sites were the spine and hip. Median survival after metastasis was 12 months (range, 2-267). Median survival after radiotherapy alone vs. multimodal treatment was 20 months (range, 12-119) vs. 33 months (range, 9-267), respectively (P > .99). Of the 87 cases we reviewed from the literature, all but 1 (98.9%) had diagnoses based on symptoms. Multiple bone involvement and extraosseous dissemination were associated with poor prognosis. Type II endometrial cancer (i.e., serous or clear-cell histology) was associated with shorter life expectancy after diagnosis of bone metastasis compared to Type I tumors. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of primary bone metastases of endometrial cancer is < 1%. Single bone metastases without extraosseous spread indicate less aggressive disease. Optimal treatment is unclear.

Impact of tubal ligation on routes of dissemination and overall survival in uterine serous carcinoma.

OBJECTIVE: Abdominal peritoneal implants are characteristic of uterine serous carcinoma (USC). The presumed mechanism of dissemination is retrograde transit via the fallopian tube. We assessed the impact of tubal ligation (TL) on the metastatic profile and survival of USC patients. METHODS: Patient risk factors, process-of-care variables, and disease-specific parameters were annotated. Categorical variables were compared using the χ(2) test. Overall survival (OS) was estimated via the Kaplan-Meier method. RESULTS: Among 211 USC patients, fallopian tube status was documented in 142 patients; 35 had a history of TL and 107 did not. When comparing patients with and without TL, positive peritoneal cytology was present, respectively, in 18.8% vs 45.0% (P=.01) and stage IV disease in 14.3% vs 34.6% (P=.02). Using Cox models, age was the sole significant determinant of OS in stage I/II USC. By contrast, age, lymphovascular space involvement, positive cytology, and TL independently and adversely affected survival in stage III/IV USC. Adjusting for these factors in a multivariable model, the association between TL and OS among patients with advanced disease yielded a hazard ratio of 8.61 (95% CI, 3.08-24.03; P<.001). The prevalence of lymphatic metastasis and nodal tumor burden was significantly greater in patients who underwent ligation. CONCLUSION: Patients with TL had significantly lower rates of positive cytology and stage IV disease than patients without TL. The lymphatic system appeared to be the dominant mode of spread after TL and was associated with a paradoxic worsening of OS, perhaps reflecting a delay in diagnosis.

Preoperative biopsy and intraoperative tumor diameter predict lymph node dissemination in endometrial cancer.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether preoperative biopsy (grade and histology) and intraoperative tumor diameter (TD) predict lymph node dissemination (LN+) and lymph node recurrence (LNRec) in endometrial cancer (EC). METHODS: Patients who underwent EC surgery from 2004 to 2008 were stratified into risk categories. Cases with preoperative grade 3 or non-endometrioid histology were classified as high risk (HR). Patients with preoperative FIGO grade 1 or 2, endometrioid histology or complex and/or atypical hyperplasia were classified based on intraoperative findings: (a) intraoperative macroscopic extrauterine disease classified as HR; (b) largest TD>2 cm classified as intermediate risk (IR) and (c) TD ≤ 2 cm classified as low risk (LR). LN+ and LNRec rates were determined. RESULTS: Of 704 patients evaluated, 188 were HR (27%), 350 IR (50%), and 166 LR (23%). P/PA lymphadenectomy was performed in 87% HR, 83% IR and 16% LR patients. LN+ and/or LNRec occurred in 51 HR patients (27%) and 39 IR patients (11%). Only 1 LR patient (0.6%) had LN+ and none had LNRec. Four LR patients (2%) required adjuvant therapy according to permanent section pathology. CONCLUSIONS: Preoperative biopsy and intraoperative TD can be used to effectively stratify patients into LR, IR or HR subgroups to tailor surgery. LR patients have a low probability (<1%) of LN+ and/or LNRec and lymphadenectomy can be omitted in this group. HR and IR patients combined (3/4 of population) have a substantial risk of LN+ or LNRec (17%). Lymphadenectomy is proposed to be advantageous in HR and IR patients if accurate frozen section is lacking.

Predictors and costs of surgical site infections in patients with endometrial cancer.

OBJECTIVE: Technological advances in surgical management of endometrial cancer (EC) may allow for novel risk modification in surgical site infection (SSI). METHODS: Perioperative variables were abstracted from EC cases surgically staged between January 1, 1999, and December 31, 2008. Primary outcome was SSI, as defined by American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program. Counseling and global models were built to assess perioperative predictors of superficial incisional SSI and organ/space SSI. Thirty-day cost of SSI was calculated. RESULTS: Among 1369 EC patients, 136 (9.9%) had SSI. In the counseling model, significant predictors of superficial incisional SSI were obesity, American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) score >2, preoperative anemia (hematocrit <36%), and laparotomy. In the global model, significant predictors of superficial incisional SSI were obesity, ASA score >2, smoking, laparotomy, and intraoperative transfusion. Counseling model predictors of organ/space SSI were older age, smoking, preoperative glucose >110 mg/dL, and prior methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection. Global predictors of organ/space SSI were older age, smoking, vascular disease, prior MRSA infection, greater estimated blood loss, and lymphadenectomy or bowel resection. SSI resulted in a $5447 median increase in 30-day cost. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings are useful to individualize preoperative risk counseling. Hyperglycemia and smoking are modifiable, and minimally invasive surgical approaches should be the preferred surgical route because they decrease SSI events. Judicious use of lymphadenectomy may decrease SSI. Thirty-day postoperative costs are considerably increased when SSI occurs.