RESUMEN
Improved methods for manipulating and analyzing gene function have provided a better understanding of how genes work during organ development and disease. Inducible functional genetic mosaics can be extraordinarily useful in the study of biological systems; however, this experimental approach is still rarely used in vertebrates. This is mainly due to technical difficulties in the assembly of large DNA constructs carrying multiple genes and regulatory elements and their targeting to the genome. In addition, mosaic phenotypic analysis, unlike classical single gene-function analysis, requires clear labeling and detection of multiple cell clones in the same tissue. Here, we describe several methods for the rapid generation of transgenic or gene-targeted mice and embryonic stem (ES) cell lines containing all the necessary elements for inducible, fluorescent, and functional genetic mosaic (ifgMosaic) analysis. This technology enables the interrogation of multiple and combinatorial gene function with high temporal and cellular resolution.
Asunto(s)
Marcación de Gen/métodos , Animales , Línea Celular , Células Madre Embrionarias , Ratones , Ratones TransgénicosRESUMEN
The human MICA (MHC I-related chain A) gene, encoding a ligand for the NKG2D (NKG2-D type II integral membrane protein) receptor, is highly polymorphic. A group of MICA alleles, named MICA 5.1 (prototype, MICA*008), produce a truncated protein due to a nucleotide insertion in the transmembrane domain. These alleles are very frequent in all of the human populations studied and they have different biological properties, compared with full-length alleles, e.g. recruitment into exosomes, which makes them very potent for down-modulating the NKG2D receptor in effector immune cells. Moreover, MICA*008 is not affected by viral immune evasion mechanisms that target other MICA alleles. In the present study, we demonstrate that MICA*008 acquires a GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol) anchor and that this modification is responsible for many of the distinct biological features of the truncated MICA alleles, including recruitment of the protein to exosomes. MICA*008 processing is also unusual as it is observed in the endoplasmic reticulum as a Triton™ X-114 soluble protein, partially undergoing GPI modification while the rest is exocytosed, suggesting a new model for MICA*008 release. This is the first report of a GPI-anchored MICA allele. The finding that this modification occurs in both families of human NKG2D ligands, as well as in the murine system, suggests positive pressure to maintain this biochemical feature.
Asunto(s)
Proteínas Ligadas a GPI/metabolismo , Antígenos de Histocompatibilidad Clase I/metabolismo , Subfamilia K de Receptores Similares a Lectina de Células NK/metabolismo , Polimorfismo Genético , Alelos , Animales , Células CHO , Cricetinae , Cricetulus , Retículo Endoplásmico/metabolismo , Exosomas/metabolismo , Proteínas Ligadas a GPI/química , Proteínas Ligadas a GPI/genética , Glicosilfosfatidilinositoles/análisis , Células HEK293 , Células HeLa , Antígenos de Histocompatibilidad Clase I/química , Antígenos de Histocompatibilidad Clase I/genética , Humanos , Ligandos , Mutagénesis Insercional , Procesamiento Proteico-Postraduccional , Estructura Terciaria de Proteína , Transporte de Proteínas , Proteínas Recombinantes/química , Proteínas Recombinantes/metabolismo , SolubilidadRESUMEN
Appropriate therapeutic modulation of endothelial proliferation and sprouting is essential for the effective inhibition of angiogenesis in cancer or its induction in cardiovascular disease. The current view is that an increase in growth factor concentration, and the resulting mitogenic activity, increases both endothelial proliferation and sprouting. Here, we modulate mitogenic stimuli in different vascular contexts by interfering with the function of the VEGF and Notch signalling pathways at high spatiotemporal resolution in vivo. Contrary to the prevailing view, our results indicate that high mitogenic stimulation induced by VEGF, or Notch inhibition, arrests the proliferation of angiogenic vessels. This is due to the existence of a bell-shaped dose-response to VEGF and MAPK activity that is counteracted by Notch and p21, determining whether endothelial cells sprout, proliferate, or become quiescent. The identified mechanism should be considered to achieve optimal therapeutic modulation of angiogenesis.
Asunto(s)
Endotelio Vascular/efectos de los fármacos , Mitógenos/farmacología , Neovascularización Patológica/tratamiento farmacológico , Transducción de Señal/efectos de los fármacos , Animales , Proliferación Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Inhibidor p21 de las Quinasas Dependientes de la Ciclina/genética , Inhibidor p21 de las Quinasas Dependientes de la Ciclina/metabolismo , Endotelio Vascular/patología , Células Endoteliales de la Vena Umbilical Humana , Humanos , Ratones , Ratones Noqueados , Neovascularización Patológica/patología , Receptores Notch/antagonistas & inhibidores , Receptores Notch/metabolismo , Retina , Vasos Retinianos , Transducción de Señal/genética , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/antagonistas & inhibidores , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/metabolismoRESUMEN
The original version of this Article contained errors in Fig. 8. In panel a, the labels 'VEGF', 'Notch', 'p21', and 'P-ERK' were inadvertently omitted. This has been corrected in the PDF and HTML versions of the Article.