Optimal Timing for Initiation of Thromboprophylaxis After Hepatic Angioembolization.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the optimal timing of thromboprophylaxis (TPX) initiation after hepatic angioembolization in trauma patients. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: TPX after hepatic trauma is complicated by the risk of bleeding, but the relative risk after hepatic angioembolization is unknown. METHODS: Patients who underwent hepatic angioembolization within 24 hours were retrospectively identified from the 2017-19 ACS TQIP datasets. Cases with <24-hour length of stay and other serious injuries were excluded. VTE included DVT and PE. Bleeding complications included hepatic surgery, additional angioembolization, or blood transfusion after TPX initiation. Differences were tested with univariate and multivariate analyses. RESULTS: Of 1,550 patients, 1,370 had initial angioembolization. Bleeding complications were higher in those with TPX initiation within 24 hours (20.0% vs 8.9%, P<0.001) and 48 hours (13.2% vs 8.4%, P=0.013). However, VTE was higher in those with TPX initiation after 48 hours (6.3%vs 3.3%, P=0.025). In the 180 patients with hepatic surgery prior to angioembolization, bleeding complications were higher in those with TPX initiation within 24 hours (72% vs 20%, P <0.001), 48 hours (50% vs 17%, P<0.001), and 72 hours (37% vs 14%, P=0.001). Moreover, DVT was higher in those with TPX initiation after 96 hours (14.3% vs 3.1%, P =0.023). CONCLUSION: This is the first study to address timing of TPX after hepatic angioembolization in a national sample of trauma patients. For these patients, initiation of TPX at 48- 72 hours achieves the safest balance in minimizing bleeding while reducing the risk of VTE. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III - Retrospective Cohort Study.

Initial Hemorrhage Control Procedure for Splenic Injuries May Affect Risk of Venous Thromboembolism.

INTRODUCTION: Venous thromboembolism (VTE) continues to be a major cause of morbidity in trauma. It is unclear whether the type of hemorrhage control procedure (i.e., splenectomy versus angioembolization) is associated with an increased risk of VTE. We hypothesize that hemodynamically stable patients undergoing angioembolization for blunt high-grade splenic injuries have lower rates of VTE compared to those undergoing splenectomy. METHODS: The American College of Surgeons Trauma Quality Program dataset from 2017 to 2019 was queried to identify all patients with American Association for the Surgery of Trauma grade 3-5 blunt splenic injuries. Outcomes including VTE rates were compared between those who were managed with splenectomy versus angioembolization. Propensity score matching (1:1) was performed adjusting for age, sex, initial vital signs, Injury Severity Score, and splenic injury grade. RESULTS: The analysis included 4698 matched patients (splenectomy [n = 2349] and angioembolization [n = 2349]). The median (interquartile range) age was 41 (27-58) years and 69% were male. Patients were well matched between groups. Angioembolization was associated with significantly lower VTE than splenectomy (2.2% versus 3.4%, P = 0.010) despite less use of VTE chemoprophylaxis (70% versus 80%, P < 0.001), as well as a relative delay in initiation of chemoprophylaxis (44 h versus 33 h, P < 0.001). Hospital and intensive care unit length of stay and mortality were also significantly lower in the angioembolization group. CONCLUSIONS: Angioembolization is associated with a significantly lower incidence of VTE than splenectomy. Thus, angioembolization should be considered for initial management of hemodynamically stable patients with high-grade blunt splenic injuries in whom laparotomy is not otherwise indicated.

Survival of In-Hospital Cardiopulmonary Arrest in Trauma Patients.

INTRODUCTION: Relative to other hospitalized patients, trauma patients are younger with fewer comorbidities, but the incidence and outcomes of in-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest (IHCA) with cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in this population is unknown. Therefore, we aimed to investigate factors associated with survival in trauma patients after IHCA to test the hypothesis that compared to other hospitalized patients, trauma patients with IHCA have improved survival. METHODS: Retrospective review of the Trauma Quality Improvement Program database 2017 to 2019 for patients who had IHCA with CPR. Primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge. Secondary outcomes were in-hospital complications, hospital length of stay, intensive care unit length of stay, and ventilator days. Data were compared with univariate and multivariate analyses at P < 0.05. RESULTS: In 22,346,677 admitted trauma patients, 14,056 (0.6%) received CPR. Four thousand three hundred seventy-seven (31.1%) survived to discharge versus 26.4% in a national sample of all hospitalized patients (P < 0.001). In trauma patients, median age was 55 y, the majority were male (72.2%). Mortality was higher for females versus males (70.3% versus 68.3%, P = 0.026). Multivariate regression showed that older age 1.01 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01-1.02), Hispanic ethnicity 1.21 (95% CI 1.04-1.40), and penetrating trauma 1.51 (95% CI 1.32-1.72) were risk factors for mortality, while White race was a protective factor 0.36 (95% CI 0.14-0.89). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to show that the incidence of IHCA with CPR is approximately six in 1000 trauma admissions and 31% survive to hospital discharge, which is higher than other hospitalized patients. Age, gender, racial, and ethnic disparities also influence survival.

Nationwide Analysis of Firearm Injury Versus Other Penetrating Trauma: It's Not All the Same Caliber.

INTRODUCTION: Ballistic injuries cause both a temporary and permanent cavitation event, making them far more destructive and complex than other penetrating trauma. We hypothesized that global injury scoring and physiologic parameters would fail to capture the lethality of gunshot wounds (GSW) compared to other penetrating mechanisms. METHODS: The 2019 American College of Surgeons Trauma Quality Programs participant use file was queried for the mortality rate for GSW and other penetrating mechanisms. A binomial logistic regression model ascertained the effects of sex, age, hypotension, tachycardia, mechanism, Glasgow Coma Scale, ISS, and volume of blood transfusion on the likelihood of mortality. Subgroup analyses examined isolated injuries by body regions. RESULTS: Among 95,458 cases (82% male), GSW comprised 46.4% of penetrating traumas. GSW was associated with longer hospital length of stay (4 [2-9] versus 3 [2-5] days), longer intensive care unit length of stay (3 [2-6] versus 2 [2-4] days), and more ventilator days (2 [1-4] versus 2 [1-3]) compared to stab wounds, all P < 0.001. The model determined that GSW was linked to increased odds of mortality compared to stab wounds (odds ratio 4.19, 95% confidence interval 3.55-4.93). GSW was an independent risk factor for acute kidney injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, venous thromboembolism, sepsis, and surgical site infection. CONCLUSIONS: Injury scoring systems based on anatomical or physiological derangements fail to capture the lethality of GSW compared to other mechanisms of penetrating injury. Adjustments in risk stratification and reporting are necessary to reflect the proportion of GSW seen at each trauma center. Improved classification may help providers develop quality processes of care. This information may also help shape public discourse on this highly lethal mechanism.

Do all cardiac surgery patients benefit from antifibrinolytic therapy?

BACKGROUND: In trauma patients, the recognition of fibrinolysis phenotypes has led to a re-evaluation of the risks and benefits of antifibrinolytic therapy (AF). Many cardiac patients also receive AF, but the distribution of fibrinolytic phenotypes in that population is unknown. The purpose of this hypothesis-generating study was to fill that gap. METHODS: Seventy-eight cardiac surgery patients were retrospectively reviewed. Phenotypes were defined as hypofibrinolytic (LY30 <0.8%), physiologic (0.8%-3.0%), and hyperfibrinolytic (>3%) based on thromboelastogram. RESULTS: The population was 65 ± 10-years old, 74% male, average body mass index of 29 ± 5 kg/m2 . Fibrinolytic phenotypes were distributed as physiologic = 45% (35 of 78), hypo = 32% (25 of 78), and hyper = 23% (18 of 78). There was no obvious effect of age, gender, race, or ethnicity on this distribution; 47% received AF. For AF versus no AF, the time with chest tube was longer (4 [1] vs. 3 [1] days, p = .037), and all-cause morbidity was more prevalent (51% vs. 25%, p = .017). However, when these two groups were further stratified by phenotypes, there were within-group differences in the percentage of patients with congestive heart failure (p = .022), valve disease (p = .024), on-pump surgery (p < .0001), estimated blood loss during surgery (p = .015), transfusion requirement (p = .015), and chest tube output (p = .008), which highlight other factors along with AF that might have affected all-cause morbidity. CONCLUSION: This is the first description of the prevalence of three different fibrinolytic phenotypes and their potential influence on cardiac surgery patients. The use of AF was associated with increased morbidity, but because of the small sample size and treatment allocation bias, additional confirmatory studies are necessary. We hope these present findings open the dialog on whether it is safe to administer AFs to cardiac surgery patients who are normo- or hypofibrinolytic.

Outcomes of Pediatric Pelvic Fractures: A Level I Trauma Center's 20-Year Experience.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric pelvic fractures are rare. The contribution of pelvic fracture pattern, risk factors for associated injuries, and mortality are poorly defined in this population. METHODS: Patients aged 0-17 with pelvic fractures at a level I trauma center over a 20-y period were reviewed. Fracture patterns were classified according to the Young-Burgess classification when applicable. Fractures were analyzed for location, pubic symphysis or sacroiliac widening, and contrast extravasation. RESULTS: There were 163 pelvic fractures in 8758 admissions (incidence 2%). The most common associated injures were extremity fractures (60%, n = 98), abdominal solid organ (55%, n = 89), and chest (48%, n = 78), with the majority (61%, n = 99) sustaining injuries to multiple organs. Unstable fractures were associated with injures to the thorax (70% versus 40%), heart (15% versus 2%), and spleen (40% versus 18%), all P < 0.05. Nonpelvic operative interventions were required in 45% (n = 73) and were more common in unstable fractures (36% versus 19%), contrast extravasation (63% versus 26%), sacroiliac widening (36% versus 20%), and sacral fractures (39% versus 13%), all P < 0.05. Mortality was 13% and higher in males versus females (18% versus 5%), contrast extravasation (50% versus 3%), or sacroiliac/pubic symphysis widening (13% versus 2%) (all P < 0.05). Male gender (OR 6.03), brain injury (OR 6.18), spine injury (OR 5.06), and cardiac injury (OR 35.0) were independently associated with mortality (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric pelvic fractures are rare but critical injuries associated with significant morbidity and need for interventions. Increasing fracture severity corresponds to injuries to other body systems and increased mortality.

Risk Factors and Clinical Outcomes Associated With Augmented Renal Clearance in Trauma Patients.

BACKGROUND: Augmented renal clearance (ARC; i.e., creatinine clearance [CLCr] ≥ 130 mL/min) has an incidence of 14%-80% in critically ill patients and has been associated with therapy failures for renally cleared drugs. However, the clinical implications of ARC are poorly defined. We hypothesize that modifiable risk factors that contribute to ARC can be identified in severely injured trauma patients and that these risk factors influence clinical outcome. METHODS: In 207 trauma intensive care unit patients, 24-h CLCr was correlated with clinical estimates of glomerular filtration rate (by Cockroft-Gault, modification of diet in renal disease, or chronic kidney disease epidemiology), and clinical outcomes (infection, venous thromboembolism [VTE], length of stay, and mortality). RESULTS: The population was 45 ± 20 y, 68% male, 77% blunt injury with injury severity score of 24 (17-30). Admission serum creatinine was 1.02 ± 0.35 mg/dL, CLCr was 154 ± 77 mL/min, VTE incidence was 15%, ARC incidence was 57%, and mortality was 11%. Clinical estimates of glomerular filtration rate by Cockroft-Gault, modification of diet in renal disease, chronic kidney disease epidemiology underestimated actual CLCr by 20%, 22%, or 15% (all P < 0.01). CLCr was higher in males and those who survived, and lower in those with hypertension, diabetes, positive cultures, receiving transfusions, or pressors (all P < 0.05). On multivariate analysis, male gender (odds ratio [OR] 2.9 [1.4-6.1]), age (OR 0.97 [0.95-0.99]), and packed red blood cells transfusion (OR 0.31 [0.15-0.66]) were the only independent predictors of ARC. CONCLUSIONS: ARC occurs in more than half of all high-risk trauma intensive care unit patients and is underestimated by standard clinical equations. ARC was not associated with increased incidence of VTE or infection but rather is associated with younger healthier males and reduced mortality. ARC seems to be a beneficial compensatory response to trauma.

Hypercoagulability After Resection of Thoracic Malignancy: A Prospective Evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Rates of venous thromboembolism are increased in thoracic malignancy; however, coagulation patterns are not established. We hypothesize that patients with esophageal and lung malignancy have similar hypercoagulable pre- and postoperative profiles as defined by rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM). METHODS: Prospective study was conducted in 47 patients with esophageal and lung cancer undergoing surgical resection. ROTEM evaluated pre/postoperative coagulation status. RESULTS: Patients with thoracic malignancy were hypercoagulable by ROTEM, but not by conventional coagulation tests. Preoperative hypercoagulability was higher in lung versus esophageal cancer (64 vs. 16%, p = 0.001). Lung cancer patients that were hypercoagulable preoperatively demonstrated decreased maximum clot firmness (MCF) (p = 0.044) and increased clot time (p = 0.049) after surgical resection, suggesting reversal of hypercoagulability. Resection of esophageal cancer increased hypercoagulability (16 vs. 56%, p = 0.002) via elevated MCF (reflecting platelet activity). Hypercoagulability remained at follow-up clinic for both lung and esophageal cancer patients. CONCLUSIONS: Hypercoagulability in patients with lung malignancies reversed following complete surgical resection, whereas hypercoagulability occurred only postoperatively in those with esophageal malignancies. In both, hypercoagulability was associated with fibrin and platelet function.

Global Gene Expression Change Induced by Major Thoracoabdominal Surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that major thoracoabdominal surgery induces gene expression changes associated with adverse outcomes. BACKGROUND: Widely different traumatic injuries evoke surprisingly similar gene expression profiles, but there is limited information on whether the iatrogenic injury caused by major surgery is associated with similar patterns. METHODS: With informed consent, blood samples were obtained from 50 patients before and after open transhiatal esophagectomy or pancreaticoduodenectomy. Twelve cases with complicated recoveries (death, infection, venous thromboembolism) were matched with 12 cases with uneventful recoveries. Global gene expression was assayed using human microarray chips. A 2-fold change with a corrected P < 0.05 was considered differentially expressed. RESULTS: In these 24 patients, 522 genes were differentially expressed after surgery; 248 (48%) were upregulated (innate immunity and inflammation) and 274 (52%) were downregulated [adaptive immunity (antigen presentation, T-cell function)]. Hierarchical clustering of the profile reliably predicted pre- and postoperative status. The within-patient change was 3.08 ±â€Š0.91-fold. There was no measurable association with age, malignancy, procedure, surgery length, operative blood loss, or transfusion requirements, but was positively associated with postoperative infection (3.81 ±â€Š0.97 vs 2.79 ±â€Š0.73; P = 0.009) and hospital length of stay (r = 0.583, P = 0.003). Venous thromboembolism and mortality each occurred in one patient, thus no associations were possible. CONCLUSIONS: Major surgery induces a quantifiable pattern of gene expression change that is associated with adverse outcome. This could reflect early impaired adaptive immunity and suggests potential therapeutic targets to improve postoperative recovery.

A simplified stratification system for venous thromboembolism risk in severely injured trauma patients.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to re-evaluate and simplify the Greenfield risk assessment profile (RAP) for venous thromboembolism (VTE) in trauma using information readily available at the bedside. METHODS: Retrospective review of 1233 consecutive admissions to the trauma intensive care unit from August 2011-January 2015. Univariate analyses were performed to determine which RAP risk factors were significant contributors to VTE. Multivariable logistic regression was used to develop models for risk stratification. All results were considered statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05. RESULTS: The study population was as follows: age 44 ± 19, 75% male, 72% blunt, injury severity score 21 ± 13, RAP score 9 ± 5, and 8% mortality. Groups were separated into +VTE (n = 104) and -VTE (n = 1129). They were similar in age, gender, mechanism, and mortality, but injury severity and RAP scores were higher in the +VTE group (all P < 0.0001). The +VTE group had more transfusions and longer time to prophylaxis (all P < 0.05). Receiving four or more transfusions in the first 24 h (odds ratio [OR], 2.60; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.64-4.13), Glasgow coma score <8 for >4 h (OR, 2.13; 95% CI, 1.28-3.54), pelvic fracture (OR, 2.26; 95% CI, 1.44-3.57), age 40-59 y (OR, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.10-2.63), and >2-h operation (OR, 1.80; 95% CI, 1.14-2.85) predicted VTE with an area under the receiver operator curve of 0.729, which was comparable with 0.740 for the RAP score alone. CONCLUSIONS: VTE risk in trauma can be easily assessed using only five risk factors, which are all readily available at the bedside (transfusion, Glasgow coma scale, pelvic fracture, prolonged operation, and age). This simplified model provides similar predictive ability to the more complicated RAP score. Prospective validation of a simplified risk assessment score is warranted.

Admission hyperglycemia is associated with different outcomes after blunt versus penetrating trauma.

BACKGROUND: Stress-induced hyperglycemia is associated with worse outcomes after trauma; however, the effect of mechanism of injury has not been studied. To fill this gap, we tested the hypothesis that blunt and penetrating trauma evoke different glycemic responses which are associated with different outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective cohort study comparing adults with blunt (n = 835) or penetrating trauma (n = 858) and admission glucose levels ≥ 106 mg/dL, ≥150 mg/dL, and ≥200 mg/dL at a level 1 trauma center from 02, 2011 to 08, 2013. Primary outcomes were mortality and infectious complications. RESULTS: For all patients, mean Injury Severity Score was 14 ± 12, with 10% (n = 162) infections and 6% (n = 102) mortality. Median admission glucose was 122 mg/dL (102-154 mg/dL). Hyperglycemia was associated with infections, length of stay, and mortality (all P < 0.01). Ten percent had an admission glucose ≥200 mg/dL, which was associated with infections after blunt trauma (odds ratio [OR], 2.28; 95% CI, 1.16-4.47; P = 0.017) but not penetrating trauma. Hyperglycemia was not an independent predictor of mortality in blunt trauma. In contrast, glucose ≥150 mg/dL (OR, 2.58; 95% CI, 1.13-5.89; P = 0.025) and ≥200 mg/dL (OR, 2.98; 95% CI, 1.27-6.98; P = 0.012) both predicted mortality in penetrating trauma patients. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to show that hyperglycemia is associated with fundamentally different outcomes after blunt versus penetrating trauma. Patients who died were 4-8 times more likely to have hyperglycemia and penetrating, not blunt, trauma. Incorporation of hyperglycemia in injury scoring systems might improve outcome predictions after trauma.

Hypercoagulability and venous thromboembolism in burn patients.

To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review on the subject of venous thromboembolism (VTE) and hypercoagulability in burn patients. Specific changes in coagulability are reviewed using data from thromboelastography and other techniques. Disseminated intravascular coagulation in burn patients is discussed. The incidence and risk factors associated with VTE in burn patients are then examined, followed by the use of low-molecular-weight heparin thromboprophylaxis and monitoring techniques using antifactor Xa levels. The need for large, prospective trials in burn patients is highlighted, especially in the areas of VTE incidence and safe, effective thromboprophylaxis.

Does obesity affect outcomes of adult burn patients?

BACKGROUND: Obesity negatively affects outcomes after trauma and surgery; results after burns are more limited and controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of obesity on clinical and economic outcomes after thermal injury. METHODS: The National Inpatient Sample was queried for adults from 2005-2009 with International Classification of Diseases-9 codes for burn injury. Demographics and clinical outcomes of obese and nonobese cohorts were compared. Univariate and multivariate analysis using logistic regression models were performed. Data are expressed as median (interquartile range) or mean ± standard deviation and compared at P < 0.05. RESULTS: In 14,602 patients, 3.3% were obese (body mass index ≥30 kg/m(2)). The rate of obesity increased significantly by year (P < 0.001). Univariate analysis revealed significant differences between obese and nonobese patients in incidence of wound infection (7.2% versus 5.0%), urinary tract infection (7.2% versus 4.6%), deep vein thrombosis in total body surface area (TBSA) ≥10% (3.1% versus 1.1%), pulmonary embolism in TBSA ≥10% (2.3% versus 0.6%), length of stay [6 d (8) versus 5 d (9)], and hospital costs ($10,122.12 [$18,074.72] versus $7892.07 [$17,191.96]) (all P < 0.05). Death occurred less frequently in the obese group (1.9% versus 4%, P = 0.021). Significant predictors of grouped adverse events (urinary tract infection, wound infection, deep vein thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism) on multivariate analysis include obesity, TBSA ≥20%, age, and black race (all P ≤ 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Obesity is an independent predictor of adverse events after burn injury; however, obesity is associated with decreased mortality. Our findings highlight the potential clinical and economic impact of the obesity epidemic on burn patients nationwide.

Prehospital care and transportation of pediatric trauma patients.

BACKGROUND: Despite advances in prehospital emergency medical services (EMS), most advocate "scoop-and-run" over "stay-and-play." However, there are almost no studies in children. We hypothesize that the transportation of mortally injured children is delayed and that the performance of prehospital interventions (PHIs) themselves delay transportation and worsen outcomes in pediatric trauma patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 1884 admissions (≤17-y-old) transported via EMS to a level 1 trauma center from January 2000-December 2012 were reviewed. Propensity scores were assigned based on the need for a PHI (intubation and resuscitation). PHI and non-PHI cohorts were matched 1:1 to compare outcomes. Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation or median (interquartile range). RESULTS: The population was 11 ± 6 y, 70% male, 50% black, 76% blunt injury, injury severity score 13 ± 12, length of stay 3 (7) d, and mortality 3.6%. Incident to EMS arrival was 38 (20) min, EMS on-scene time was 14 (12) min, and overall time of arrival to hospital was 27 (15) min. Patients that were mortally wounded, despite having significantly higher rates of PHI, still had similar transportation times to those who survived. Mostly every measure of injury severity was worse in those who required PHI. When these factors were corrected, EMS on-scene time was 18 (13) versus 14 (13) min (P = 0.551), EMS arrival at the hospital was 31 (16) versus 28 (12) min (P = 0.292), length of stay was 5 (15) versus 4 (12) d (P = 0.368), and mortality was 31.7% versus 28.3% (P = 0.842) for PHI and non-PHI matched cohorts. CONCLUSIONS: PHIs did not delay transportation times or worsen outcomes in pediatric trauma patients. Although mortally injured children more often required PHIs, this did not delay transportation to the trauma center.

Liquid plasma use during "super" massive transfusion protocol.

BACKGROUND: A massive transfusion protocol (MTP) presents a logistical challenge for most blood banks and trauma centers. We compare the ratio of packed red blood cells (PRBC) and plasma transfused over serial time points in those requiring MTP (10-30 U PRBC/24 h) to those requiring "super" MTP (S-MTP; >30 U PRBC/24 h) and test the hypothesis that changes in allocation of blood products with use of readily transfusable liquid plasma (LP) improves the ratio of PRBC and plasma during S-MTP. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All transfused trauma patients (n = 1305) from January 01, 2009-April, 03, 2015 were reviewed. PRBC:plasma ratio was compared for MTP (n = 277) and S-MTP (n = 61) patients, before and after the availability of LP at our institution. Data are reported as mean ± standard deviation or median (interquartile range). RESULTS: Age was 41 ± 19 y, 52% blunt mechanism, injury severity score 32 ± 16, and 46.3% mortality. In 24 h, requirements were 17 (14) U PRBC and 10 (11) U plasma, with a PRBC:plasma of 1.6 (0.8). Within the first hour, PRBC:plasma for S-MTP versus MTP was 2.1:1 versus 1.7:1 (P = 0.017). With LP, S-MTP patients received significantly lower PRBC:plasma at the first hour (P < 0.001). Before institutional changes, PRBC:plasma positively correlated with PRBC transfused at hour 1 (r = 0.410, R(2) = 0.168, P < 0.001); after institutional changes and the advent of LP, there was no correlation (r = 0.177, R(2) = 0.031, P = 0.219). CONCLUSIONS: Within the first hour of transfusion, units of PRBC transfused positively correlated with PRBC:plasma, and patients receiving S-MTP had higher PRBC:plasma than those receiving MTP. Changes in our institution's MTP protocol to include LP improved the early PRBC:plasma transfused in patients requiring S-MTP.

A 20-year retrospective analysis of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism among combat casualties requiring damage-control laparotomy at US military Role 2 surgical units.

BACKGROUND: Combat casualties receiving damage-control laparotomy at forward deployed, resource-constrained US military Role 2 (R2) surgical units require multiple evacuations, but the added risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in this population has not been defined. To fill this gap, we retrospectively analyzed 20 years of Department of Defense Trauma Registry data to define the VTE rate in this population. METHODS: Department of Defense Trauma Registry from 2002 to 2023 was queried for US military combat casualties requiring damage-control laparotomy at R2. All deaths were excluded in subsequent analysis. Rates of VTE were assessed, and subgroup analysis was performed on patients requiring massive transfusion. RESULTS: Department of Defense Trauma Registry (n = 288) patients were young (mean age, 25 years) and predominantly male (98%) with severe (mean Injury Severity Score, 26), mostly penetrating injury (76%) and high mortality. Venous thromboembolism rate was high: 15.8% (DVT, 10.3%; pulmonary embolism, 7.1%). In the massively transfused population, the VTE rate was even higher (26.7% vs. 10.2%, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This is the first report that combat casualties requiring damage-control laparotomy at R2 have such high VTE rates. Therefore, for military casualties, we propose screening ultrasound upon arrival to each subsequent capable echelon of care and low threshold for initiating thromboprophylaxis. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic and Epidemiological; Level IV.

Advanced Surgical Skills for Exposure in Trauma (ASSET) course improves military surgeon confidence.

OBJECTIVE: Active duty military surgeons often have limited trauma surgery experience prior to deployment. Consequently, military-civilian training programs have been developed at high-volume trauma centers to evaluate and maintain proficiencies. Advanced Surgical Skills for Exposure in Trauma (ASSET) was incorporated into the predeployment curriculum at the Army Trauma Training Detachment in 2011. This is the first study to assess whether military surgeons demonstrated improved knowledge and increased confidence after taking ASSET. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Quaternary care hospital. PATIENTS AND PARTICIPANTS: Attending military surgeons who completed ASSET between July 2011 and October 2020. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Pre- and post-course self-reported comfort level with procedures was converted from a five-point Likert scale to a percentage and compared using paired t-tests. RESULTS: In 188 military surgeons, the median time in practice was 3 (1-8) years, with specialties in general surgery (52 percent), orthopedic surgery (29 percent), trauma (7 percent), and other disciplines (12 percent). The completed self-evaluation response rate was 80 percent (n = 151). The self-reported comfort level for all body regions improved following course completion (p < 0.001): chest (27 percent), neck (23 percent), upper extremity (22 percent), lower extremity (21 percent), and abdomen/pelvis (19 percent). The overall score on the competency test improved after completion of ASSET, with averages increasing from 62 ± 18 percent pretest to 71 ± 13 percent post-test (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: After taking the ASSET course, military surgeons demonstrated improved knowledge and increased confidence in the operative skills taught in the course. The ASSET course may provide sustainment of knowledge and confidence if used at regular intervals to maintain trauma skills and deployment readiness.