Cat odour-induced anxiety--a study of the involvement of the endocannabinoid system.

RATIONALE: Recent evidence suggests the involvement of the endocannabinoid (EC) system in the regulation of anxiety. OBJECTIVES: The aim of present work was to study the role of the EC system in cat odour-induced anxiety in rats. Materials and methods Male Wistar rats were exposed to cat odour in home and motility cages. Exposure of rats to elevated zero-maze was used to determine changes in anxiety. Effect of rimonabant (0.3-3 mg/kg), antagonist of CB1 receptors, was studied on cat odour-induced alterations in exploratory behaviour. Real-time PCR was used to determine gene expression levels of EC-related genes in the brain. RESULTS: Anxiogenic-like action of cat odour was evident in the elevated zero-maze. Cat odour increased the expression of FAAH, the enzyme responsible for the degradation of anandamide, in the mesolimbic area. By contrast, in the amygdala and periaqueductal grey (PAG) levels of NAPE-PLD, the enzyme related to the synthesis of anandamide, and FAAH were remarkably decreased. Cat odour also decreased the expression of enzymes related to metabolism of 2-archidonoyl-glycerol in the amygdala and PAG. Pre-treatment of rats with rimonabant (0.3-3 mg/kg) reduced the exploratory behaviour of rats, but did not affect cat odour-induced changes. CONCLUSION: Exposure to cat odour induces anxiogenic-like effect on the behaviour in rats. Cat odour also causes moderate increase in expression of EC-related genes in the mesolimbic area, whereas significant down-regulation is established in the amygdala and PAG. Relation of predator odour-induced anxiety to the inhibition of the EC system in the amygdala and PAG is supported by behavioural studies where blockade of CB1 receptors by rimonabant induces anxiogenic-like action.

Different housing conditions alter the behavioural phenotype of CCK(2) receptor-deficient mice.

The behavioural phenotype of mice, lacking CCK(2) receptors, has varied across studies conducted not only in different laboratories, but also across studies published by the same laboratory. The present study was designed to elucidate the phenotype of CCK(2) receptor-deficient mice housed in two different environmental conditions within the same laboratory. Environmental enrichment was used as an alternative environment to standard laboratory conditions. Significant genotype by environment interaction was observed in the plus-maze, hot-plate, restraint-induced analgesia and water maze test. While mice, lacking CCK(2) receptors, housed in standard conditions were more anxious, displayed stronger restraint-induced analgesia and performed worse in the water maze when compared to corresponding wild-type littermates, none of these phenotypes were observed in mice, housed in enriched conditions. By contrast, in the hot-plate test, rota-rod and locomotor activity test a genotype-dependent phenotype was observed in mice housed in enriched, but not in standard conditions. Moreover, the phenotype of CCK(2) receptor-deficient mice established in the hot-plate test and rota-rod was sex-specific. These results suggest that thorough and labour-consuming study of mutation-induced behavioural phenotype is necessary not only in different genetic backgrounds but also the substantial variation of phenotype due to sex- and environment-related factors have to be explored.

Behavioural differences between C57BL/6 and 129S6/SvEv strains are reinforced by environmental enrichment.

Housing in enriched environment has been advocated as a means for controlled variation of environmental conditions in transgenic studies to explore interactions between genes and surroundings. In the present study, behavioural phenotypes of C57Bl/6 (B6) and 129S6/SvEv (129) mice, housed in either standard laboratory conditions or environmentally enriched conditions, were explored. Housing in enriched conditions increased exploratory activity in the plus-maze and reduced habituation in the locomotor activity test in B6 mice, whereas in 129 mice increased hot plate latencies and reduced aggression were observed. Compared to B6, 129 strain displayed lower exploratory activity in the plus-maze and locomotor activity test, longer hot plate latencies, spent more time immobile in the forced swim test and engaged more in social interaction. These behavioural differences between the two strains were reproducible independent of pre-experimental housing conditions. Moreover, environmental enrichment accentuated dissimilarities between the strains in the plus-maze, locomotor activity, hot plate and forced swim test. By contrast, strain differences in anxiety-like behaviours in the plus-maze test and in aggressive encounters in the resident-intruder test were not reproducible in mice housed in alternative environmental conditions, suggesting a strong contribution of environmental factors to the development of these phenotypes. It is concluded that the application of environmental enrichment in addition to standard housing conditions is a meaningful approach for testing reproducibility of behavioural findings within one laboratory.

Screen for genes in periaqueductal grey of male Wistar rats related to reduced exploratory activity in the elevated plus-maze.

Aim of a present study was to find genes in the periaqueductal grey (PAG) related to the exploratory behavior in rats. Male Wistar rats were divided according to their exploratory behavior in the elevated plus-maze model of anxiety into two groups: high (non-anxious) and low (anxious) exploratory activity. Differential expression of genes was analyzed using the cDNA representational difference analysis (RDA). Q-RT-PCR was used to confirm most prominent changes and functional annotation of the identified genes was performed to establish pathways related to exploratory behavior of rats. We found different genetic activation related to the exploratory activity of rats. Rats with low exploratory activity showed increase in the intracellular signal transduction and in GABA, vasopressin and adrenergic receptor activities. Functional annotation confirmed significant induction of cAMP system and GTPases in rats with anxious-type behavior. On the other hand, rats with high exploratory activity in the elevated plus-maze (non-anxious type of behavior) had increased activity of genes forming "behavioral fear response" system. These changes were specific to PAG, because they were not found in the cerebellum. In addition, plasma corticosterone levels were significantly higher in rats with non-anxious behavior compared to anxious behavior. Our results show that non-anxious behavior is related to activation of "fear response system" and more intense activation of HPA axis. Possibly it means that this system helps animals to cope with the threatening circumstances. More detailed analysis of this potential "fear response system" is necessary in the further studies for understanding its role in the regulation of emotional behavior.

Cat odor exposure induces distinct changes in the exploratory behavior and Wfs1 gene expression in C57Bl/6 and 129Sv mice.

129Sv and C57Bl/6 (Bl6) strains are two most widely used inbred mice strains for generation of transgenic animals. The present study confirms the existence of substantial differences in the behavior of these two mice strains. The exploratory behavior of Bl6 mice in a novel environment was significantly higher compared to 129Sv mice. The exposure of mice to cat odor-induced an anxiety-like state in Bl6, but not in 129Sv mice. The levels of Wfs1 gene expression did not differ in the prefrontal cortex, mesolimbic area and temporal lobe of experimentally naive Bl6 and 129Sv mice. However, after cat odor exposure the expression of Wfs1 gene was significantly lower in the mesolimbic area and temporal lobe of Bl6 mice compared to 129Sv strain. Dynamics of Wfs1 gene expression and exploratory behavior suggest that the down-regulation of Wfs1 gene in Bl6 mice might be related to the increased anxiety. Further studies are needed to test the robustness and possible causal relationship of this finding.

Gender specific effects of ethanol in mice, lacking CCK2 receptors.

Neuropeptide cholecystokinin (CCK) has been reported to suppress ethanol intake, but there is contradictory evidence about the role of CCK(2) receptors. In the present study anxiolytic, hypolocomotor and sedative effects of acute ethanol administration, but also voluntary ethanol consumption were studied in male and female mice, lacking CCK(2) receptors (-/-). Ethanol (1.0 and 2.0 g/kg) induced a significant reduction of anxiety-related behaviours in the elevated plus-maze, but this effect was statistically significant only in female homozygous mice (-/-). In male mice, lacking CCK(2) receptors (-/-), but not in their wild-type littermates (+/+), the suppression of vertical locomotor activity was caused by ethanol at a dose 0.5 g/kg. The highest dose of ethanol (2.0 g/kg) produced statistically significant reduction of horizontal locomotor activity only in female wild-type (+/+) mice, but this effect was related to increased basal activity when compared to female mutant (-/-) mice. Duration of the loss of righting reflex was not significantly affected by genotype or gender, but blood ethanol levels at regain of righting reflex were significantly lower in female homozygous mice (-/-) compared to their wild-type (+/+) littermates, indicating increased sensitivity to the sedative effect of ethanol. Ethanol intake, but not preference, at concentration 10% was significantly increased in female mice, lacking CCK(2) receptors (-/-). The present study revealed an altered response to the acute effects of ethanol in CCK(2) receptor deficient mice (-/-). These changes are gender-specific and could be attributed to the altered activity of dopaminergic system in male mice and increased activity of GABA-ergic system in female mice as established in our previous studies.

Heterozygous mice with Ric-8 mutation exhibit impaired spatial memory and decreased anxiety.

Ric-8 is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for a subset of Galpha proteins and it is required to maintain Galpha(q) and the Galpha(s) pathways in functional state. In adult mice Ric-8 is expressed in regions involved in the regulation of behavior (neocortex, cingulate cortex and hippocampus). As Ric-8 is shown to regulate neuronal transmitter release, the aim of present study was to perform behavioral analysis of ric-8 mutant. Homozygous (-/-) ric-8 mutant mice are not viable and die in early embryonic development, therefore for behavioral analysis heterozygous (+/-) ric-8 mutant mice were used. We found decreased anxiety of ric-8 heterozygous mice in light-dark compartment test where mutant mice significantly avoided the light compartment. In spatial learning paradigm (Morris water maze) the performance of ric-8 (+/-) mice was impaired. Namely, in the reversal test, ric-8 (+/-) mice exhibited significant delay to find the hidden platform compared to wild-type (wt) littermates. We did not find differences in the behavioral tests reflecting the motor abilities of mice (motor activity, rota-rod). Therefore, described alterations seem to be specific for anxiety and spatial learning. Based on these results we can conclude the importance of ric-8 in the regulation of memory and emotional behavior.

Cat odour exposure decreases exploratory activity and alters neuropeptide gene expression in CCK(2) receptor deficient mice, but not in their wild-type littermates.

An attempt was made to establish whether the anxiogenic effect of cat odour differs in female wild-type and CCK(2) receptor deficient mice, having different exploratory activity in the elevated plus-maze. The exposure of wild-type and homozygous CCK(2) receptor deficient mice to cat odour did not reveal substantial differences between the two genotypes. The number of contacts with the cat odour impregnated cloth was reduced and the frequency of stretch-attend postures was increased similarly in wild-type and homozygous mice. However, the following exposure of mice to the elevated plus-maze established differences as homozygous mice displayed increased exploratory activity in the plus-maze. The cat odour exposure significantly reduced exploratory activity only in homozygous mice. Together with the increased exploratory activity we established in homozygous mice significantly increased expression of the Oprm1 gene in the frontal cortex and mesencephalon. The exposure of mice to cat odour caused only minor changes in the gene expression of wild-type mice, whereas in homozygous animals a significantly increased expression of the Mc3r gene in the frontal cortex and temporal lobe, and the Pomc1 gene in the temporal lobe, mesencephalon and mesolimbic area was established. In conclusion, CCK(2) receptor deficient mice displayed reduced anxiety compared to their wild-type littermates in the plus-maze test. This behavioural effect seems to be related, at least partly, to an increased tone of opioid system in the brain. Moreover, homozygous mice respond to the exposure of cat odour with an increased anxiety. This effect seems to be related to the increased function of the melanocortin system in the brain structures of genetically modified mice.

Variability in the effect of antidepressants upon Wfs1-deficient mice is dependent on the drugs' mechanism of actions.

There is significant comorbidity between mood disorders and diabetes. Wolfram syndrome-related to deficient WFS1 gene function-causes diabetes and mood disorders in humans. Mice lacking the Wfs1 gene display impaired emotional behaviour and glucose metabolism. Various antidepressant drugs are used for alleviating the symptoms of mood disorders. For this study the tail suspension test and locomotor activity test were used to compare the effects of different antidepressants upon homozygous Wfs1-deficient, heterozygous Wfs1-deficient and wild-type mice. Mouse glucose metabolism was concurrently studied using the glucose tolerance test. We showed that ketamine(10mg/kg),NMDA antagonist, escitalopram(2.5-10mg/kg), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor(SSRI), and amitriptyline(10mg/kg), noradrenaline and serotonin reuptake inhibitor, elicited a stronger antidepressant-like effect in homozygous Wfs1-deficient mice compared to wild-type mice. The effect of noradrenaline and serotonin reuptake inhibitor desipramine(10 and 20mg/kg) did not differ between genotypes. The dopamine and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor bupropion(5-20mg/kg) had no significant antidepressant-like effect upon any genotype. Amitriptyline and desipramine potentiated a glucose elevation, escitalopram and bupropion did not affect glucose concentrations, and ketamine improved impaired glucose metabolism in homozygous Wfs1-deficient mice. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that SSRIs are the drugs of choice for the treatment of depressive symptoms in diabetic patients. The efficacy of ketamine for these patients remains to be established. Nonetheless, employing the mechanism of action of ketamine that affected glucose metabolism positively, could be an approach for development of improved antidepressants. Wfs1-deficient mice are likely the good animal model to develop new antidepressants more suitable for depressed patients with diabetes.

Targeted invalidation of CCK2 receptor gene induces anxiolytic-like action in light-dark exploration, but not in fear conditioning test.

RATIONALE: Evidence suggests that gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and cholecystokinin (CCK) have opposite roles in the regulation of anxiety. OBJECTIVES: The aim of our work was to study the behaviour of CCK(2) receptor deficient mice in light-dark exploration and fear conditioning tests. Moreover, the action of diazepam and methyl-6,7-dimethoxy-4-ethyl-beta-carboline-3-carboxylate (DMCM), having the opposite effect on GABA(A) receptors, was evaluated on the exploratory behaviour in these mice. Expression levels of GABA(A) receptor subunit genes were also measured. METHODS: Light-dark exploration and fear conditioning tests were used to determine changes in anxiety of mice. The action of diazepam (0.5-2 mg/kg i.p.) and DMCM (0.25-1 mg/kg i.p.) was studied in the light-dark box. The effect of DMCM was also evaluated in the motor activity test to demonstrate that its anti-exploratory action was not related to motor suppression. Expression levels of GABA(A) receptor subunit genes were determined by means of real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). RESULTS: Female mice lacking CCK(2) receptors displayed increased exploratory activity in the light-dark box compared to their wild-type (+/+) littermates. Locomotor activity in the motility boxes and the intensity of freezing did not differ in wild-type (+/+) and homozygous (-/-) mice. Treatment with diazepam (0.5 mg/kg) increased the number of transitions in wild-type (+/+) animals, whereas in homozygous (-/-) mice diazepam (0.5-2 mg/kg) reduced exploratory activity. Administration of DMCM (0.25-1 mg/kg) induced an anxiogenic-like effect in homozygous (-/-) mice, but did not change their locomotor activity. Gene expression analysis established a 1.6-fold increase in the expression of the alpha2 subunit of GABA(A) receptors in the frontal cortex of homozygous (-/-) mice. CONCLUSION: Genetic invalidation of CCK(2) receptors induced an anxiolytic-like action in exploratory, but not in conditioned models of anxiety. The observed reduction in anxiety in homozygous (-/-) mice is probably related to an increased function of GABAergic system in the brain.

Deletion of the Wolfram syndrome-related gene Wfs1 results in increased sensitivity to ethanol in female mice.

Wolfram syndrome, induced by mutation in WFS1 gene, increases risk of developing mood disorders in humans. In mice, Wfs1 deficiency cause higher anxiety-like behaviour and increased response to anxiolytic-like effect of diazepam, a GABAA receptor agonist. As GABAergic system is also target for ethanol, we analysed its anxiolytic-like and sedative properties in Wfs1-deficient mice using elevated plus-maze test and tests measuring locomotor activity and coordination, respectively. Additionally loss of righting reflex test was conducted to study sedative/hypnotic properties of ethanol, ketamine and pentobarbital. To evaluate pharmacokinetics of ethanol in mice enzymatic colour test was used. Finally, gene expression of alpha subunits of GABAA receptors following ethanol treatment was studied by real-time-PCR. Compared to wild-types, Wfs1-deficient mice were more sensitive to ethanol-induced anxiolytic-like effect, but less responsive to impairment of motor coordination. Ethanol and pentobarbital, but not ketamine, caused longer duration of hypnosis in Wfs1-deficient mice. The expression of Gabra2 subunit at 30 minutes after ethanol injection was significantly increased in the frontal cortex of Wfs1-deficient mice as compared to respective vehicle-treated mice. For the temporal lobe, similar change in Gabra2 mRNA occurred at 60 minutes after ethanol treatment in Wfs1-deficient mice. No changes were detected in Gabra1 and Gabra3 mRNA following ethanol treatment. Taken together, increased anxiolytic-like effect of ethanol in Wfs1-deficient mice is probably related to altered Gabra2 gene expression. Increased anti-anxiety effect of GABAA receptor agonists in the present work and earlier studies (Luuk et al., 2009) further suggests importance of Wfs1 gene in the regulation of emotional behaviour.

Altered pain sensitivity and morphine-induced anti-nociception in mice lacking CCK2 receptors.

RATIONALE: Cholecystokinin (CCK) interacts with the endopioid system in the regulation of various physiological functions, including the control of pain sensitivity, motor activity and emotional behaviour. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present work was to study the pain sensitivity, morphine-induced antinociception and density of opioid receptors in mice lacking CCK(2) receptors. METHODS: Plantar analgesia and hotplate tests were used to evaluate pain sensitivity and morphine-induced antinociception. The parameters of opioid receptors were analysed by using [(3)H]-diprenorphine binding. RESULTS: In the plantar analgesia test the latency of hind paw withdrawal was significantly increased in CCK(2) receptor deficient mice compared to wild-type (+/+) littermates. The treatment with saline reversed the reduced pain sensitivity in heterozygous (+/-) and homozygous (-/-) mice. The administration of morphine (1 mg/kg) induced a significantly stronger antinociceptive effect in homozygous (-/-) mice compared with wild-type (+/+) animals. In the hotplate test, only homozygous (-/-) mutant mice displayed the delayed latency of hind paw licking/shaking in comparison with wild-type (+/+) mice. The injection of saline and isolation of mice for 30 min reversed the delayed response in homozygous (-/-) mice. However, in this test, the anti-nociceptive action of morphine (5-10 mg/kg) in mutant mice did not differ from that in wild-type (+/+) littermates. By contrast, the jump latency was decreased in both homozygous (-/-) and heterozygous (+/-) mice in the hotplate test. The increased density of opioid receptors was established in the striatum of homozygous (-/-) mice. CONCLUSION: It is apparent that the targeted mutagenesis of the CCK(2) receptor gene has different effects on the sensitivity of opioid receptors in various brain structures. This is a probable reason for the altered pain sensitivity and morphine-induced antinociception in mutant mice compared to wild-type (+/+) littermates.

Targeted mutation of CCK2 receptor gene modifies the behavioural effects of diazepam in female mice.

RATIONALE: Evidence suggests that GABA and CCK have opposite roles in the regulation of anxiety. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present work was to study diazepam-induced anxiolytic-like action and impairment of motor co-ordination, and the parameters of benzodiazepine receptors in mice lacking CCK2 receptors. METHODS: The action of diazepam (0.5-3 mg/kg i.p.) was studied in the elevated plus-maze model of anxiety and rotarod test using mice lacking CCK2 receptors. The parameters of benzodiazepine receptors were analysed using [3H]-flunitrazepam binding. RESULTS: In the plus-maze test, the exploratory activity of the homozygous (-/-) mice was significantly higher compared to their wild-type (+/+) littermates. However, the wild-type (+/+) mice displayed higher sensitivity to the anxiolytic-like action of diazepam. Even the lowest dose of diazepam (0.5 mg/kg) induced a significant increase of open arm entries in the wild-type (+/+) mice. A similar effect in the homozygous (-/-) mice was established after the administration of diazepam 1 mg/kg. The highest dose of diazepam (3 mg/kg) caused a prominent anxiolytic-like effect in the wild-type (+/+) mice, whereas in the homozygous (-/-) animals suppression of locomotor activity was evident. The performance of the homozygous (-/-) mice in the rotarod test did not differ from that of the wild-type (+/+) littermates. However, a difference between the wild-type (+/+) and homozygous (-/-) animals became evident after treatment with diazepam. Diazepam (0.5 and 3 mg/kg) induced significantly stronger impairment of motor co-ordination in the homozygous (-/-) mice compared to their wild-type (+/+) littermates. The density of benzodiazepine binding sites was increased in the cerebellum, but not in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, of the homozygous (-/-) mice. CONCLUSIONS: Female mice lacking CCK2 receptors are less anxious than their wild-type (+/+) littermates. The reduced anxiety in homozygous (-/-) mice probably explains why the administration of a higher dose of diazepam is necessary to induce an anxiolytic-like action in these animals. The highest dose of diazepam (3 mg/kg) induced significantly stronger suppression of locomotor activity and impairment of motor co-ordination in the homozygous (-/-) mice compared to the wild-type (+/+) littermates. The increase in the action of diazepam is probably related to the elevated density of benzodiazepine receptors in the cerebellum of homozygous (-/-) mice. The present study seems to be in favour of increased tone of the GABAergic system in mice without CCK2 receptors.

Targeted mutation of CCK(2) receptor gene antagonises behavioural changes induced by social isolation in female, but not in male mice.

Neuropeptide cholecystokinin (CCK) regulates the adaptation of rodents in the novel environment. In the present study we analysed the behavioural changes induced by the individual housing in mice, lacking CCK(2) receptors. The wild-type (+/+) and homozygous (-/-) CCK(2) receptor deficient mice of both gender were used throughout the study. The weight gain during the 21-day isolation period and changes in the locomotor activity following the social separation were measured. The elevated plus-maze and resident/intruder tests were also performed to test alterations in the emotional behaviour. Social isolation induced locomotor hyperactivity, reduced weight gain and increased aggressiveness in the wild-type (+/+) and homozygous (-/-) male mice. In the wild-type (+/+) female mice the significant reduction of exploratory activity in the plus-maze was evident. By contrast, in female mice, lacking CCK(2) receptors, the exploration of the plus-maze was not significantly affected by the individual housing. This finding demonstrates that the social isolation does not cause anxiety-like state in the CCK(2) receptor deficient mice. Moreover, the targeted invalidation of CCK(2) receptors increased in male mice the affinity of dopamine D(2) receptors in the sub-cortical structures, whereas in female mice the increased affinity of 5-hydroxytryptamine(2) (5-HT(2)) receptors in the frontal cortex was established. The increased affinity of 5-HT(2) receptors is probably the compensatory change to the lack of CCK(2) receptors in female mice and probably reflects the reduced sensitivity of these animals to the anxiogenic manipulations. In conclusion, targeted mutation of CCK(2) receptors selectively antagonised the behavioural changes induced by the individual housing in females, but not in male mice.

Distinct changes in the behavioural effects of morphine and naloxone in CCK2 receptor-deficient mice.

The effects of morphine, mu-opioid receptor agonist, and naloxone, a non-selective opioid receptor antagonist, in the locomotor activity and place conditioning tests were studied in the CCK(2) receptor-deficient male mice. The exposure of mice to the motility boxes for 3 consecutive days induced a significant inhibition of locomotor activity in the wild-type (+/+) mice compared to homozygous (-/-) animals. The administration of naloxone (10 mg/kg i.p.) to animals, adapted to the motility boxes, induced a significant reduction of locomotor activity in the homozygous (-/-), but not in the wild-type (+/+) mice. Treatment of habituated mice with morphine (10 mg/kg i.p.) caused a stronger increase of locomotor activity in the wild-type (+/+) mice compared to the homozygous (-/-) littermates. In the place preference test the pairing of the preferred side with naloxone (1 and 10 mg/kg i.p.) induced a dose-dependent place aversion in the wild-type (+/+) mice. The treatment with naloxone was less effective in the homozygous (-/-) mice, because the high dose of naloxone (10 mg/kg) tended to shift the preference. The pairing of morphine (3 mg/kg i.p.) injections with the non-preferred side induced a significant place preference both in the wild-type (+/+) and homozygous (-/-) mice. The increased density of opioid receptors was established in the striatum of homozygous (-/-) mice, but not in the other forebrain structures. In conclusion, the targeted invalidation of CCK(2) receptors induces a dissociation of behavioural effects of morphine and naloxone. Morphine-induced place preference remained unchanged, whereas hyper-locomotion was less pronounced in the mutant mice compared to the wild-type (+/+) littermates. By contrast, naloxone-induced place aversion was weaker, but naloxone caused a stronger inhibition of locomotor activity in the homozygous (-/-) mice than in the wild-type (+/+) animals. These behavioural alterations can be explained in the light of data that the targeted mutation of CCK(2) receptors induces distinct changes in the properties of opioid receptors in various brain structures.

Wfs1-deficient mice display altered function of serotonergic system and increased behavioral response to antidepressants.

It has been shown that mutations in the WFS1 gene make humans more susceptible to mood disorders. Besides that, mood disorders are associated with alterations in the activity of serotonergic and noradrenergic systems. Therefore, in this study, the effects of imipramine, an inhibitor of serotonin (5-HT) and noradrenaline (NA) reuptake, and paroxetine, a selective inhibitor of 5-HT reuptake, were studied in tests of behavioral despair. The tail suspension test (TST) and forced swimming test (FST) were performed in Wfs1-deficient mice. Simultaneously, gene expression and monoamine metabolism studies were conducted to evaluate changes in 5-HT- and NA-ergic systems of Wfs1-deficient mice. The basal immobility time of Wfs1-deficient mice in TST and FST did not differ from that of their wild-type littermates. However, a significant reduction of immobility time in response to lower doses of imipramine and paroxetine was observed in homozygous Wfs1-deficient mice, but not in their wild-type littermates. In gene expression studies, the levels of 5-HT transporter (SERT) were significantly reduced in the pons of homozygous animals. Monoamine metabolism was assayed separately in the dorsal and ventral striatum of naive mice and mice exposed for 30 min to brightly lit motility boxes. We found that this aversive challenge caused a significant increase in the levels of 5-HT and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), a metabolite of 5-HT, in the ventral and dorsal striatum of wild-type mice, but not in their homozygous littermates. Taken together, the blunted 5-HT metabolism and reduced levels of SERT are a likely reason for the elevated sensitivity of these mice to the action of imipramine and paroxetine. These changes in the pharmacological and neurochemical phenotype of Wfs1-deficient mice may help to explain the increased susceptibility of Wolfram syndrome patients to depressive states.

Evidence for impaired function of dopaminergic system in Wfs1-deficient mice.

Immunohistological studies suggest abundant expression of Wfs1 protein in neurons and nerve fibers that lie in the vicinity of dopaminergic (DA-ergic) fibers and neurons. Therefore, we sought to characterize the function of DA-ergic system in Wfs1-deficient mice. In wild-type mice, amphetamine, an indirect agonist of DA, caused significant hyperlocomotion and increase in tissue DA levels in the dorsal and ventral striatum. Both effects of amphetamine were significantly blunted in homozygous Wfs1-deficient mice. Motor stimulation caused by apomorphine, a direct DA receptor agonist, was somewhat stronger in Wfs1-deficient mice compared to their wild-type littermates. However, apomorphine caused a similar reduction in levels of DA metabolites (3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and homovanillic acid) in the dorsal and ventral striatum in all genotypes. Behavioral sensitization to repeated treatment with amphetamine (2.5 mg/kg) was observed in wild-type, but not in Wfs1-deficient mice. The expression of DA transporter gene (Dat) mRNA was significantly lower in the midbrain of male and female homozygous mice compared to wild-type littermates. Altogether, the blunted effects of amphetamine and the reduced gene expression of DA transporter are probably indicative of an impaired functioning of the DA-ergic system in Wfs1-deficient mice.

Deletion of the Lsamp gene lowers sensitivity to stressful environmental manipulations in mice.

The Lsamp gene gives rise to limbic system-associated membrane protein (LAMP), which is expressed on the surface of somata and proximal dendrites of neurons. Lsamp-deficient mice have been shown to be slightly hyperactive in novel environments and less anxious, and they display alterations in swimming speed, fear reaction, fear conditioning and social behaviour. In human studies, links between the LSAMP gene and several psychiatric disorders have been found and LSAMP has been established as a tumour suppressor gene. To study the impact of environmental manipulations on the phenotype, we exposed male Lsamp-deficient mice to environmental enrichment (EE), a technique that has often been shown to abolish phenotypic deviations in knockout mice, and to social isolation, a stressful manipulation, after which all the mice were tested in a behavioural battery. EE abolished differences between the genotypes in body weight and anogenital sniffing, a behaviour related to aggressiveness, and amplified the anxiolytic-like phenotype of Lsamp-deficient mice both in the plus maze and motility box. Isolation abolished differences between the genotypes in body weight and anxiety and amplified the differences in swimming speed and anogenital sniffing. EE and isolation failed to modify the results as compared to standard housing in whisker trimming, locomotor activity, marble burying and corticosterone levels. In conclusion, Lsamp-deficient mice were less sensitive to isolation stress than their wild-type littermates. Lack of LAMP protein seemingly leads to a deterioration in the ability to adapt to novel stressful environments and stimuli.

Lower anxiety and a decrease in agonistic behaviour in Lsamp-deficient mice.

In rodents, the Lsamp gene has been implicated in trait anxiety, fear reaction and fear conditioning. Human data link the LSAMP gene to several psychiatric disorders. In this study, we presented a general phenotypic characterization of Lsamp gene-deficient mouse line, created by deleting exon 1b. These mice displayed no gross sensory-motor deficiencies, no overt abnormalities and performed normally in memory and learning tests. However, they responded with increased activity to new environments. Moreover, they displayed reduced anxiety and notable deviations in social behaviour, such as lack of whisker trimming, reduced aggressiveness and reduced dominance. One possible explanation for the anxiolytic-like effect of the deletion of the Lsamp gene is a shift in balance in the Gabra1 and Gabra2 genes in the temporal lobe in favor of the Gabra2 transcript, encoding α2 subunit of GABA(A) receptors that mediate the stimulating effect of GABA agonists. The overall phenotype of Lsamp-deficient mice, characterized by decreased anxiety and several alterations in social behaviour, makes them a good model for studying the molecular mechanisms behind inadequate social behaviours observed in several psychiatric disorders.

Myg1-deficient mice display alterations in stress-induced responses and reduction of sex-dependent behavioural differences.

Myg1 (Melanocyte proliferating gene 1) is a highly conserved and ubiquitously expressed gene, which encodes a protein with mitochondrial and nuclear localization. In the current study we demonstrate a gradual decline of Myg1 expression during the postnatal development of the mouse brain that suggests relevance for Myg1 in developmental processes. To study the effects of Myg1 loss-of-function, we created Myg1-deficient (-/-) mice by displacing the entire coding sequence of the gene. Initial phenotyping, covering a multitude of behavioural, cognitive, neurological, physiological and stress-related responses, revealed that homozygous Myg1 (-/-) mice are vital, fertile and display no gross abnormalities. Myg1 (-/-) mice showed an inconsistent pattern of altered anxiety-like behaviour in different tests. The plus-maze and social interaction tests revealed that male Myg1 (-/-) mice were significantly less anxious than their wild-type littermates; female (-/-) mice showed increased anxiety in the locomotor activity arena. Restraint-stress significantly reduced the expression of the Myg1 gene in the prefrontal cortex of female wild-type mice and restrained female (-/-) mice showed a blunted corticosterone response, suggesting involvement of Myg1 in stress-induced responses. The main finding of the present study was that Myg1 invalidation decreases several behavioural differences between male and female animals that were obvious in wild-type mice, indicating that Myg1 contributes to the expression of sex-dependent behavioural differences in mice. Taken together, we provide evidence for the involvement of Myg1 in anxiety- and stress-related responses and suggest that Myg1 contributes to the expression of sex-dependent behavioural differences.