Assessment of 2 Treatment Methods for Ulna Fractures With an Intact Radius in Raptors: Conservative Management and Surgical Fixation With a Type I External Skeletal Fixator Intramedullary Pin Tie-in.

Several methods have been reported for treating avian antebrachial fractures, yet the quantitative information regarding their success is limited. This retrospective study applied data from raptors admitted to a wildlife rehabilitation center to provide metrics associated with the treatment of ulna fractures with an intact radius by either conservative management or a single surgical method: a type I external skeletal fixator tied in to an intramedullary pin (ESF IMP tie-in). Postfledging wild raptors with an ulna fracture admitted to The Raptor Center at the University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine (St Paul, MN, USA) between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2017, that survived for at least 7 days after admission were included in the study. Information regarding signalment, fracture characteristics, treatment method, outcome, and complications were recorded. The study included 110 raptors representing 15 species. The majority of birds (69%, 76/110) were treated with conservative management. Conservative management was used more often in cases of chronic (P = .02) and closed (P = .02) fractures, whereas fractures with poor alignment at the time of admission were frequently treated through surgical means (P=.001). Alignment was more likely to improve with an ESF IMP tie-in (P=1.01 ×10-9). The majority of cases (65%, 72/110) had a successful outcome. Birds with closed fractures were more likely to have a successful outcome (P=.03). Birds in which fracture alignment became exacerbated with either treatment method were more likely to have a poor outcome (P=.002). The results of this retrospective study found that conservative management and surgical fixation by the ESF IMP tie-in technique are both viable treatment options for ulna fractures with an intact radius in raptors. The choice of treatment method is dependent on the clinician's assessment of the fracture characteristics and individual patient.

Distraction Osteogenesis in Two Wild Raptors.

Distraction osteogenesis was used in 2 wild raptor patients for the repair of tibiotarsal fractures. The first case was a hatching year female peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) admitted with an open oblique right distal tibiotarsal fracture. The fracture was surgically managed with the external skeletal fixator intramedullary pin tie-in technique (ESF-IM pin tie-in). Appropriate healing of the fracture site occurred with the ESF-IM pin tie-in. However, there was significant pelvic limb shortening of the affected leg, and the bird consequently developed pododermatitis on the contralateral foot. The second case was an adult female great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) that was admitted with a closed, partially healed, overriding right tibiotarsal fracture. Because of the advanced stage of this fracture, which presented with a fibrous callus, and the already apparent pelvic limb shortening, the ESF-IM pin tie-in was not used. Both patients were fitted with a circular external skeletal fixator (CESF), and distraction osteogenesis was performed until the length of the pelvic limb was deemed anatomically adequate. It is critical that rehabilitated raptors be released without any physical conditions that may reduce their ability to survive and reproduce in the wild. Pelvic limb shortening can potentially predispose a raptor patient to pododermatitis, even with fatal consequences, in both captive and wild environments. The orthopedic technique used here proved useful to repair the limb shortening in both raptor cases, and each bird fully recovered and was released.

Patterns and trends in lead (Pb) concentrations in bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) nestlings from the western Great Lakes region.

Most studies examining bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) exposure to lead (Pb) have focused on adults that ingested spent Pb ammunition during the fall hunting season, often at clinical or lethal levels. We sampled live bald eagle nestlings along waterbodies to quantify Pb concentrations in 3 national park units and 2 nearby study areas in the western Great Lakes region. We collected 367 bald eagle nestling feather samples over 8 years during spring 2006-2015 and 188 whole blood samples over 4 years during spring 2010-2015. We used Tobit regression models to quantify relationships between Pb concentrations in nestling feathers and blood using study area, year, and nestling attributes as covariates. Pb in nestling feather samples decreased from 2006 to 2015, but there was no trend for Pb in blood samples. Pb concentrations in nestling feather and blood samples were significantly higher in study areas located closer to and within urban areas. Pb in feather and blood samples from the same nestling was positively correlated. Pb in feathers increased with nestling age, but this relationship was not observed for blood. Our results reflect how Pb accumulates in tissues as nestlings grow, with Pb in feathers and blood indexing exposure during feather development and before sampling, respectively. Some nestlings had Pb concentrations in blood that suggested a greater risk to sublethal effects from Pb exposure. Our data provides baselines for Pb concentrations in feathers and blood of nestling bald eagles from a variety of waterbody types spanning remote, lightly populated, and human-dominated landscapes.

Serologic evidence of exposure of raptors to influenza A virus.

Serum or plasma samples from raptors that prey or scavenge upon aquatic birds were tested by a commercially available blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the evidence of antibodies to influenza A virus. Samples were taken from birds (n = 616) admitted to two rehabilitation centers in the United States. In addition, samples from 472 migrating peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) trapped on autumnal and vernal migrations for banding purposes were also tested. Only bald eagles were notably seropositive (22/406). One each of peregrine falcon, great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), and Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperi) from a total of 472, 81, and 100, respectively, were also positive. None of the turkey vultures (n = 21) or black vultures (n = 8) was positive. No clinical signs referable to avian influenza were seen in any bird at the time of capture. These data indicate that, among raptors, bald eagles do have exposure to influenza A viruses.

Isolation of H5 avian influenza viruses from waterfowl in the upper Midwest region of the United States.

In recent years, the H5N1 subtype of avian influenza virus (AIV) has become an important zoonotic pathogen. The surveillance of AIV in its natural host, the waterfowl, is crucial to monitoring and controlling the disease in poultry and other species. In this study, we report on the isolation of H5 AIV from cloacal swabs of waterfowl captured in Minnesota and South Dakota. We screened a total of 7260 cloacal samples from waterfowl using matrix gene-directed, real-time reverse transcription-(rRT-PCR) and H5-specific rRT-PCR and found 148 samples to be positive for the H5 subtype. On inoculation of 71 of these samples in embryonated chicken eggs, 25 samples yielded H5 AIV. On subtyping with N-specific primers, we detected a mixture of subtypes in 15 isolates. Molecular pathotyping confirmed the isolated H5 subtypes to be low pathogenicity avian influenza. Continuation of AIV surveillance programs should help in understanding the epidemiology and ecology of AIV.

Improved method for the isolation and sub-typing of avian influenza viruses from oropharyngeal samples of ducks.

Waterfowl are the natural reservoirs of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), from which the virus can spread to other species including humans, poultry, and swine. For the surveillance of AIV in their natural reservoir, most laboratories initially screen the samples using real-time reverse-transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction because of its high speed and sensitivity. Thereafter, virus isolation is used to isolate viruses from positive samples. Although many studies point to the need of testing both cloacal and oropharyngeal (OP) samples in AIV surveillance programs, most laboratories focus only on cloacal samples. This study was undertaken to determine the utility of OP samples as target samples in AIV surveillance programs under a strict cold chain of samples from the field to the laboratory. A total of 16 AIV (15.1%) were isolated from the 106 OP samples examined. Upon subtyping, four hemagglutinin subtypes (H1, H3, H4, and H6) and three neuraminidase subtypes (N1, N2, and N8) were detected in nine different combinations. Mixed infection with two different subtypes was found in four samples. No AIVs were isolated from the corresponding cloacal samples. These results highlight the fact that testing of properly frozen OP samples could add value to the understanding of the epidemiology and ecology of AIV in waterfowl populations.

Isolation of mixed subtypes of influenza A virus from a bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus).

From April 2007 to March 2008, cloacal swabs were obtained from 246 casualty raptors recovered by various wildlife rehabilitation centers in the United States. The swabs were placed in a virus transport medium and transported to the laboratory on ice packs. At the laboratory, the samples were pooled with each pool consisting of five samples. All pools (n = 50) were screened for the presence of avian influenza virus (AIV) using a real time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR); one of the pools was found positive. All five samples in this pool were tested individually by rRT-PCR; one sample from a bald eagle was found positive. This sample was inoculated in embryonated chicken eggs for virus isolation and a hemagglutinating virus was isolated. Complete genome sequencing of the isolate revealed a mixed infection with H1N1 and H2N1 subtypes. Further analysis revealed that the PB1-F2 gene sequence of H1N1 virus had the N66S virulence-associated substitution. Further studies on ecology and epidemiology of AIV in raptors are needed to help understand their role in the maintenance and evolution of AIV.

Isolation and molecular characterization of Newcastle disease viruses from raptors.

The present study was undertaken to detect and characterize Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in raptors. Cloacal and oropharyngeal swab samples were collected from 60 casualty raptors during January to March 2009 in Minnesota. Inoculation of all these samples (n=120) in 9-day-old embryonated hens' eggs resulted in isolation of haemagglutinating viruses in three samples from two bald eagles and one great horned owl. These three haemagglutinating viruses were confirmed as NDV by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using fusion gene-specific primers, and were negative for avian influenza virus by RT-PCR. Further characterization revealed that all three possessed (112)GKQGRL(117) at the fusion gene cleavage site, indicating that they were lentogenic strains. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all three isolates clustered with published class II genotype II NDVs. The nucleotide sequence homology of the three NDV isolates among themselves was 98.4 to 99.6% and the sequence homology with lentogenic strains from wild birds used for comparison varied between 94.5 and 100%. Detection of NDV strains from raptors merits further epidemiological studies to determine the prevalence of different NDV strains in raptors and their impact in relation to transmission to domestic poultry.

Comparison of cloacal and oropharyngeal samples for the detection of avian influenza virus in wild birds.

This study was conducted to compare oropharyngeal (OP) and cloacal samples of wild birds (n = 137) for the detection and isolation of avian influenza virus (AIV). A total of 39 (28.5%) cloacal and 85 (62.0%) OP samples were positive for AIV by real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RRT-PCR). The AIV nucleic acid was detected in both cloacal and OP samples from 27 (19.7%) birds, in cloacal samples only from 12 (8.8%) birds, and in OP samples only from 58 (42.3%) birds. Thus, a total of 97 (70.8%) birds were AIV positive by RRT-PCR. The cycle threshold values for the cloacal samples ranged from 16.6 to 36.9 (mean 31.5), and those for OP samples ranged from 18 to 38.9 (mean 34.9). Of the cloacal samples, 12 were positive for H5 subtype influenza virus by RRT-PCR, with one being low pathogenic H5N1. In contrast, five of the OP samples were H5 positive, but none was H5N1. None of the cloacal or OP samples was H7 positive. Eight cloacal samples yielded AIV on inoculation in embryonated chicken eggs, while only one isolate was obtained from OP samples. Thus, from testing of 137 birds, only nine (6.6%) AIV isolates were obtained. The isolates from cloacal samples were subtyped as H6N1 (n = 5), H3N8 (n = 2), and H4N8 (n = 1), and the isolate from OP sample was subtyped as H6N1. No virus was isolated from the corresponding cloacal sample of the bird whose OP sample yielded AIV on virus isolation. These results suggest that surveillance programs for detection of AIV by RRT-PCR may include both sample types (cloacal and OP) to obtain a better picture of AIV prevalence, and OP samples may yield additional isolates of AIV when tested in conjunction with cloacal samples.

Phylogenetic analysis of Newcastle disease viruses isolated from waterfowl in the upper midwest region of the United States.

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to characterize Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates obtained from waterfowl from the Upper Midwest region of the United States. A total of 43 NDVs were isolated by inoculation of cloacal samples in embryonated chicken eggs. These isolates were obtained from 24 mallards, seven American green-winged teals, six northern pintails, four blue-winged teals, and two wood ducks. Partial sequences of fusion gene were analyzed to determine the pathotypes and genotypes involved. RESULTS: Deduced amino acid sequence of the cleavage site of fusion (F) protein revealed that all isolates had avirulent motifs. Of the 43 isolates, 23 exhibited sequence motif of (111)GGKQGRL(117) at the cleavage site, 19 exhibited (111)GEKQGRL(117) while one isolate showed (111)GERQGRL(117). Phylogenetic analysis based on comparison with different classes of NDVs revealed that all 43 isolates clustered with class II NDVs and none with class I NDVs. Within class II, five isolates were phylogenetically close to genotype I NDVs while the remaining 38 were close to genotype II. CONCLUSION: We conclude that more than one genotype of NDV circulates in waterfowl in the Upper Midwest region of the US. Continuous surveillance may help better understand the epidemiology of NDVs maintained in wild bird populations and their relationship to NDVs in domestic poultry, if any.

Management of a cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in an American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber).

A 32-year-old female American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) was presented with a squamous cell carcinoma of the middle digit of the right foot. No clinical, hematologic, or radiologic evidence of metastasis was present. Salvage amputation of the digit resulted in complete cure, whereas previous electrosurgery and radiation therapy were unsuccessful. Three years later, another squamous cell carcinoma was diagnosed in the middle digit of the left foot. The digit was also amputated. Seven months after the second amputation, the bird did not have any recurrence or signs of metastasis.

Mechanical evaluation of various external skeletal fixator-intramedullary pin tie-in configurations using a tubular plastic bone model.

Use of external skeletal fixator-intramedullary pin tie-in (ESF-IM pin tie-in) fixators is an adjustable and effective method of fracture fixation in birds. The objective of this study was to evaluate the elements of the ESF-IM tie-in configuration used in birds. Ten variations of constructs were applied to a plastic bone model with a standard gap. Variants included non-tied and tie-in configurations, use of a 6- or 10-mm acrylic bar or a thermoplastic connecting bar, variation in the placement of the proximal fixation pin, use of 1.1-mm (0.045-in) or 1.6-mm (0.062-in) fixation pins, and configurations of 2, 3, or 4 fixation pins. The various constructs were loaded in bending, torque, and compression, and response variables were determined from resulting load-displacement curves (stiffness, load at 1-mm displacement). Results showed that, by using the tie-in configuration, increasing the diameter of the acrylic connecting bar, and increasing the diameter or number of fixation pins, each significantly increased the stiffness in all assessments. Placing the fixation pin distally in the proximal bone model segment increased the stiffness in bending, and adding a fixation pin to the distal bone model segment increased the stiffness in torque and bending. These results quantified the relative importance of specific parameters that effect stiffness and safe load of the ESF-IM tie-in construct as applied to a plastic bone fracture model.

Mechanical evaluation of external skeletal fixator-intramedullary pin tie-in configurations applied to cadaveral humeri from red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis).

Use of external skeletal fixator-intramedullary pin (ESF-IM) tie-in fixators is an adjustable and effective method of fracture fixation in birds. The objective of this study was to determine the contribution of each of the following parameters to the compressive and torsional rigidity of an ESF-IM pin tie-in applied to avian bones with an osteotomy gap: (1) varying the fixation pin position in the proximal bone segment and (2) increasing the number of fixation pins in one or both bone segments. ESF-IM pin tie-in constructs were applied to humeri harvested from red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) (n=24) that had been euthanatized for clinical reasons. Constructs with a variation in the placement of the proximal fixation pin and with 2, 3, or 4 fixation pins applied to avian bone with an osteotomy gap were loaded to a defined displacement in torque and axial compression. Response variables were determined from resulting load-displacement curves (construct stiffness, load at 1-mm displacement). Increasing the number of fixation pins from 1 to 2 per bone segment significantly increased the stiffness in torque (110%) and compression (60%), and the safe load in torque (107%) and compression (50%). Adding a fixation pin to the distal bone segment to form a 3-pin fixator significantly increased the stiffness (27%) and safe load (20%) in torque but not in axial compression. In the configuration with 2 fixation pins, placing the proximal pin distally in the proximal bone segment significantly increased the stiffness in torque (28%), and the safe load in torque (23%) and in axial compression (32%). Results quantified the relative importance of specific parameters affecting the rigidity of ESF-IM pin tie-in constructs as applied to unstable bone fracture models in birds.

Raptor toxicology.

Birds of prey have demonstrated the negative impact that toxic agents can cause on animal populations and ecosystem dynamics. Lead, cholinesterase inhibitors (eg, organophosphates, carbamates), and anticoagulant rodenticides (eg, brodifacoum) are the most common toxic agents that currently affect the health of wild birds of prey in the United States. For raptors held in captivity, the list of toxic agents expands and includes toxic inhalants such as carbon monoxide and polytetrafluoroethylene. This article provides diagnostic and treatment guidelines for the toxic agents discussed.

Ophthalmologic and oculopathologic findings in red-tailed hawks and Cooper's hawks with naturally acquired West Nile virus infection.

OBJECTIVE: To assess ophthalmologic features and ocular lesions in red-tailed hawks and Cooper's hawks naturally infected with West Nile virus (WNV). DESIGN: Original study. ANIMALS: 13 hawks. PROCEDURES: All hawks underwent complete ophthalmic examinations including slit lamp biomicroscopy and binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy. Eleven hawks were euthanized because of a grave prognosis; complete necropsies were performed. Eyes, brain, heart, and kidneys were processed for histologic and immunohistochemical examinations. Pooled tissue homogenates and aqueous humor samples were assessed for WNV nucleic acid via PCR assay, and anti-WNV antibody titers in aqueous humor and plasma were determined. RESULTS: All birds had similar funduscopic abnormalities including exudative chorioretinal lesions and chorioretinal scarring in a geographic or linear pattern. Eleven birds were euthanized, and 2 birds were released. Plasma from both released hawks and plasma and aqueous humor of all euthanized hawks that were evaluated contained anti-WNV antibodies. Except for 1 hawk, all euthanized hawks had WNV-associated disease (determined via detection of WNV antigen or nucleic acid in at least 1 organ). Histopathologic ocular abnormalities, most commonly pectenitis, were detected in all euthanized birds; several birds had segmental choroiditis, often with corresponding segmental retinal atrophy. West Nile virus antigen was detected in the retinas of 9 of the euthanized birds. In 2 hawks, WNV antigen was detected in the retina only. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that funduscopically detectable chorioretinal lesions appear to be associated with WNV disease in hawks. Detection of ocular lesions may aid in antemortem or postmortem diagnosis of this condition.

INFLUENCE OF SNOWFALL ON BLOOD LEAD LEVELS OF FREE-FLYING BALD EAGLES (HALIAEETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS) IN THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI RIVER VALLEY.

Lead poisoning of scavenging raptors occurs primarily via consumption of game animal carcasses containing lead, which peaks during fall firearm hunting seasons. We hypothesized that snowfall would mitigate exposure by concealing carcasses. We categorized blood lead level (BLL) for a subsample of Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) from the Upper Mississippi River Valley and described BLL with respect to age, sex, and snowfall. We captured Bald Eagles overwintering in the Upper Mississippi River Valley (n=55) between December 1999 and January 2002. Individual BLL ranged from nondetectable to 335 µg/dL, with 73% of the samples testing positive for acute exposure to lead. Eagle BLL did not significantly differ between age or sex, but levels were higher immediately following the hunting season, and they were lower when the previous month's snowfall was greater than 11 cm. This study suggests a window of time between the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunting season and the onset of snow when the population experienced peak exposure to lead. Combining these findings with existing research, we offer a narrative of the annual lead exposure cycle of Upper Mississippi River Valley Bald Eagles. These temporal associations are necessary considerations for accurate collection and interpretation of BLL.

Falcon adenovirus infection in breeding Taita falcons (Falco fasciinucha).

Four female and 3 male Taita falcons (Falco fasciinucha) out of a breeding colony of 14 Taita falcons (7 pairs) died during the breeding season after showing lethargy and anorexia for 1 to 2 days. All animals were submitted for necropsy. Gross lesions in the female falcons were characterized by anemia secondary to marked hemorrhage into the ovary and oviduct, serofibrinous effusion into the cardioabdominal cavity and serosal petechiae. In addition, marked necrotizing splenitis and pulmonary hemorrhage were present. Histologically, the female falcons had mild necrotizing hepatitis with numerous intranuclear inclusion bodies and necrotizing splenitis with rare inclusion bodies. There were no gross lesions in the male falcons, and the histological lesions were characterized by urate deposition and rare intranuclear inclusion bodies in the renal tubular epithelial cells. Adenoviral particles were found by electron microscopy in the cloacal contents of the female Taita falcons but not in the male falcons. DNA in situ hybridization revealed widespread aviadenoviral nucleic acid within the nuclei of hepatocytes, renal tubular epithelial cells, and adrenal cells in the female falcons but no aviadenoviral nucleic acid in 1 male falcon and only a low quantity of adenoviral nucleic acid in the liver and kidney of another male Taita falcon. PCR amplified aviadenoviral DNA in the liver and intestine of all Taita falcons. The amplicons were sequenced, and the virus was identified as falcon adenovirus. The deaths of the female and male birds were attributed to the aviadenovirus infection.

Correlation of brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging of spontaneously lead poisoned bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) with histological lesions: A pilot study.

Six bald eagles with severe, acute lead poisoning based on blood lead values were analyzed by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the brain and histopathology. The aims of the study were to use MRI to locate brain lesions and correlate the changes in MRI signal with the histological character of the lesions at necropsy. All of the bald eagles presented with neurologic and non-neurologic signs suggestive of severe lead poisoning and had blood lead levels in excess of 1.0 ppm. Areas of change in image intensity in the brainstem, midbrain and cerebellum were detected in the MRI scans. Histopathology confirmed the presence of all suspected lesions. The character of the lesions suggested vascular damage as the primary insult. MRI was useful for detecting lesions and defining their three-dimensional distribution and extent. Future studies are needed to evaluate the utility of MRI for detection of lesions in less severely lead poisoned eagles and determining prognosis for treatment.

External skeletal fixator intramedullary pin tie-in for the repair of tibiotarsal fractures in raptors: 37 cases (1995-2011).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the outcome of the application of an external skeletal fixator intramedullary pin tie-in (TIF) to tibiotarsal fractures in raptors. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: Thirty-four raptors with 37 tibiotarsal fractures. PROCEDURES: Medical records and radiographs for raptors with tibiotarsal fractures that were treated at The Raptor Center at the University of Minnesota between 1995 and 2011 were reviewed. Descriptive statistics were generated and univariate logistic regression analyses were used to assess whether age, sex, body weight, location and nature of the fracture, and type of surgical reduction were significantly associated with whether the fracture healed following surgical reduction and TIF application. RESULTS: 31 of 37 (84%) tibiotarsal fractures successfully healed following surgical reduction and TIF application. The mean healing time was 38 days (range, 15 to 70 days). None of the variables assessed were significantly associated with whether the tibiotarsal fracture healed. Twenty of the 34 (59%) raptors were eventually rehabilitated and released. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that most tibiotarsal fractures were successfully managed by surgical reduction and stabilization with a TIF. However, other comorbidities (eg, systemic infections and visual deficits) negatively affected the rehabilitation of raptors and sometimes resulted in euthanasia despite the fact that the tibiotarsal fracture had healed, and those comorbidities, along with the variables evaluated (eg, age, sex, and nature of the fracture), should be used as triage criteria and prognostic indicators.

Disease risk in a dynamic environment: the spread of tick-borne pathogens in Minnesota, USA.

As humans and climate change alter the landscape, novel disease risk scenarios emerge. Understanding the complexities of pathogen emergence and subsequent spread as shaped by landscape heterogeneity is crucial to understanding disease emergence, pinpointing high-risk areas, and mitigating emerging disease threats in a dynamic environment. Tick-borne diseases present an important public health concern and incidence of many of these diseases are increasing in the United States. The complex epidemiology of tick-borne diseases includes strong ties with environmental factors that influence host availability, vector abundance, and pathogen transmission. Here, we used 16 years of case data from the Minnesota Department of Health to report spatial and temporal trends in Lyme disease (LD), human anaplasmosis, and babesiosis. We then used a spatial regression framework to evaluate the impact of landscape and climate factors on the spread of LD. Finally, we use the fitted model, and landscape and climate datasets projected under varying climate change scenarios, to predict future changes in tick-borne pathogen risk. Both forested habitat and temperature were important drivers of LD spread in Minnesota. Dramatic changes in future temperature regimes and forest communities predict rising risk of tick-borne disease.