Tropical tree mortality has increased with rising atmospheric water stress.

Evidence exists that tree mortality is accelerating in some regions of the tropics1,2, with profound consequences for the future of the tropical carbon sink and the global anthropogenic carbon budget left to limit peak global warming below 2 °C. However, the mechanisms that may be driving such mortality changes and whether particular species are especially vulnerable remain unclear3-8. Here we analyse a 49-year record of tree dynamics from 24 old-growth forest plots encompassing a broad climatic gradient across the Australian moist tropics and find that annual tree mortality risk has, on average, doubled across all plots and species over the last 35 years, indicating a potential halving in life expectancy and carbon residence time. Associated losses in biomass were not offset by gains from growth and recruitment. Plots in less moist local climates presented higher average mortality risk, but local mean climate did not predict the pace of temporal increase in mortality risk. Species varied in the trajectories of their mortality risk, with the highest average risk found nearer to the upper end of the atmospheric vapour pressure deficit niches of species. A long-term increase in vapour pressure deficit was evident across the region, suggesting that thresholds involving atmospheric water stress, driven by global warming, may be a primary cause of increasing tree mortality in moist tropical forests.

The stomatal response to vapor pressure deficit drives the apparent temperature response of photosynthesis in tropical forests.

As temperature rises, net carbon uptake in tropical forests decreases, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. High temperatures can limit photosynthesis directly, for example by reducing biochemical capacity, or indirectly through rising vapor pressure deficit (VPD) causing stomatal closure. To explore the independent effects of temperature and VPD on photosynthesis we analyzed photosynthesis data from the upper canopies of two tropical forests in Panama with Generalized Additive Models. Stomatal conductance and photosynthesis consistently decreased with increasing VPD, and statistically accounting for VPD increased the optimum temperature of photosynthesis (Topt) of trees from a VPD-confounded apparent Topt of c. 30-31°C to a VPD-independent Topt of c. 33-36°C, while for lianas no VPD-independent Topt was reached within the measured temperature range. Trees and lianas exhibited similar temperature and VPD responses in both forests, despite 1500 mm difference in mean annual rainfall. Over ecologically relevant temperature ranges, photosynthesis in tropical forests is largely limited by indirect effects of warming, through changes in VPD, not by direct warming effects of photosynthetic biochemistry. Failing to account for VPD when determining Topt misattributes the underlying causal mechanism and thereby hinders the advancement of mechanistic understanding of global warming effects on tropical forest carbon dynamics.

A medida que aumenta la temperatura, disminuye la absorción neta de carbono en los bosques tropicales, sin embargo, aún no se conocen bien los mecanismos que la subyacen. Las altas temperaturas pueden limitar la fotosíntesis directamente, por ejemplo, reduciendo la eficiencia de los procesos bioquímicos, pero también de forma indirecta a través del aumento del déficit de presión de vapor (DPV) que resulta en el cierre estomático. Para explorar los efectos independientes de la temperatura y el DPV en la fotosíntesis, analizamos datos de la absorción neta de carbono del dosel de dos bosques tropicales en Panamá utilizando modelos aditivos generalizados. La conductancia estomática y la fotosíntesis disminuyó consistentemente con el aumento de DPV, y considerando el DPV en modelas estadísticas, la temperatura óptima de la fotosíntesis (Topt) aumentó, de un Topt aparente influida por la DVP de c. 30­31°C a un Topt independiente del DPV de c. 33­36°C. Los árboles y las lianas mostraron respuestas similares a la temperatura y a la DVP en ambos bosques, a pesar de la diferencia de 1500 mm en la precipitación media anual. La fotosíntesis en los bosques tropicales está limitada en gran medida por los efectos indirectos del aumento de la temperatura, a través de cambios en el DPV y no por los efectos directos en los procesos bioquímicos. Si no se tiene en cuenta el DPV al determinar el Topt, se atribuye erróneamente el mecanismo causal subyacente y, por lo tanto, se obstaculiza el avance en la comprensión de los efectos del calentamiento global en la dinámica del carbono.

Towards species-level forecasts of drought-induced tree mortality risk.

Predicting species-level responses to drought at the landscape scale is critical to reducing uncertainty in future terrestrial carbon and water cycle projections. We embedded a stomatal optimisation model in the Community Atmosphere Biosphere Land Exchange (CABLE) land surface model and parameterised the model for 15 canopy dominant eucalypt tree species across South-Eastern Australia (mean annual precipitation range: 344-1424 mm yr-1 ). We conducted three experiments: applying CABLE to the 2017-2019 drought; a 20% drier drought; and a 20% drier drought with a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2 ). The severity of the drought was highlighted as for at least 25% of their distribution ranges, 60% of species experienced leaf water potentials beyond the water potential at which 50% of hydraulic conductivity is lost due to embolism. We identified areas of severe hydraulic stress within-species' ranges, but we also pinpointed resilience in species found in predominantly semiarid areas. The importance of the role of CO2 in ameliorating drought stress was consistent across species. Our results represent an important advance in our capacity to forecast the resilience of individual tree species, providing an evidence base for decision-making around the resilience of restoration plantings or net-zero emission strategies.

Tropical tree growth sensitivity to climate is driven by species intrinsic growth rate and leaf traits.

A better understanding of how climate affects growth in tree species is essential for improved predictions of forest dynamics under climate change. Long-term climate averages (mean climate) drive spatial variations in species' baseline growth rates, whereas deviations from these averages over time (anomalies) can create growth variation around the local baseline. However, the rarity of long-term tree census data spanning climatic gradients has so far limited our understanding of their respective role, especially in tropical systems. Furthermore, tree growth sensitivity to climate is likely to vary widely among species, and the ecological strategies underlying these differences remain poorly understood. Here, we utilize an exceptional dataset of 49 years of growth data for 509 tree species across 23 tropical rainforest plots along a climatic gradient to examine how multiannual tree growth responds to both climate means and anomalies, and how species' functional traits mediate these growth responses to climate. We show that anomalous increases in atmospheric evaporative demand and solar radiation consistently reduced tree growth. Drier forests and fast-growing species were more sensitive to water stress anomalies. In addition, species traits related to water use and photosynthesis partly explained differences in growth sensitivity to both climate means and anomalies. Our study demonstrates that both climate means and anomalies shape tree growth in tropical forests and that species traits can provide insights into understanding these demographic responses to climate change, offering a promising way forward to forecast tropical forest dynamics under different climate trajectories.

Bridge to the future: Important lessons from 20 years of ecosystem observations made by the OzFlux network.

In 2020, the Australian and New Zealand flux research and monitoring network, OzFlux, celebrated its 20th anniversary by reflecting on the lessons learned through two decades of ecosystem studies on global change biology. OzFlux is a network not only for ecosystem researchers, but also for those 'next users' of the knowledge, information and data that such networks provide. Here, we focus on eight lessons across topics of climate change and variability, disturbance and resilience, drought and heat stress and synergies with remote sensing and modelling. In distilling the key lessons learned, we also identify where further research is needed to fill knowledge gaps and improve the utility and relevance of the outputs from OzFlux. Extreme climate variability across Australia and New Zealand (droughts and flooding rains) provides a natural laboratory for a global understanding of ecosystems in this time of accelerating climate change. As evidence of worsening global fire risk emerges, the natural ability of these ecosystems to recover from disturbances, such as fire and cyclones, provides lessons on adaptation and resilience to disturbance. Drought and heatwaves are common occurrences across large parts of the region and can tip an ecosystem's carbon budget from a net CO2 sink to a net CO2 source. Despite such responses to stress, ecosystems at OzFlux sites show their resilience to climate variability by rapidly pivoting back to a strong carbon sink upon the return of favourable conditions. Located in under-represented areas, OzFlux data have the potential for reducing uncertainties in global remote sensing products, and these data provide several opportunities to develop new theories and improve our ecosystem models. The accumulated impacts of these lessons over the last 20 years highlights the value of long-term flux observations for natural and managed systems. A future vision for OzFlux includes ongoing and newly developed synergies with ecophysiologists, ecologists, geologists, remote sensors and modellers.

Photosynthetic plasticity of a tropical tree species, Tabebuia rosea, in response to elevated temperature and [CO2 ].

Atmospheric and climate change will expose tropical forests to conditions they have not experienced in millions of years. To better understand the consequences of this change, we studied photosynthetic acclimation of the neotropical tree species Tabebuia rosea to combined 4°C warming and twice-ambient (800 ppm) CO2 . We measured temperature responses of the maximum rates of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylation (VCMax ), photosynthetic electron transport (JMax ), net photosynthesis (PNet ), and stomatal conductance (gs ), and fitted the data using a probabilistic Bayesian approach. To evaluate short-term acclimation plants were then switched between treatment and control conditions and re-measured after 1-2 weeks. Consistent with acclimation, the optimum temperatures (TOpt ) for VCMax , JMax and PNet were 1-5°C higher in treatment than in control plants, while photosynthetic capacity (VCMax , JMax , and PNet at TOpt ) was 8-25% lower. Likewise, moving control plants to treatment conditions moderately increased temperature optima and decreased photosynthetic capacity. Stomatal density and sensitivity to leaf-to-air vapour pressure deficit were not affected by growth conditions, and treatment plants did not exhibit stronger stomatal limitations. Collectively, these results illustrate the strong photosynthetic plasticity of this tropical tree species as even fully developed leaves of saplings transferred to extreme conditions partially acclimated.

Fine root dynamics across pantropical rainforest ecosystems.

Fine roots constitute a significant component of the net primary productivity (NPP) of forest ecosystems but are much less studied than aboveground NPP. Comparisons across sites and regions are also hampered by inconsistent methodologies, especially in tropical areas. Here, we present a novel dataset of fine root biomass, productivity, residence time, and allocation in tropical old-growth rainforest sites worldwide, measured using consistent methods, and examine how these variables are related to consistently determined soil and climatic characteristics. Our pantropical dataset spans intensive monitoring plots in lowland (wet, semi-deciduous, and deciduous) and montane tropical forests in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia (n = 47). Large spatial variation in fine root dynamics was observed across montane and lowland forest types. In lowland forests, we found a strong positive linear relationship between fine root productivity and sand content, this relationship was even stronger when we considered the fractional allocation of total NPP to fine roots, demonstrating that understanding allocation adds explanatory power to understanding fine root productivity and total NPP. Fine root residence time was a function of multiple factors: soil sand content, soil pH, and maximum water deficit, with longest residence times in acidic, sandy, and water-stressed soils. In tropical montane forests, on the other hand, a different set of relationships prevailed, highlighting the very different nature of montane and lowland forest biomes. Root productivity was a strong positive linear function of mean annual temperature, root residence time was a strong positive function of soil nitrogen content in montane forests, and lastly decreasing soil P content increased allocation of productivity to fine roots. In contrast to the lowlands, environmental conditions were a better predictor for fine root productivity than for fractional allocation of total NPP to fine roots, suggesting that root productivity is a particularly strong driver of NPP allocation in tropical mountain regions.

Identifying areas at risk of drought-induced tree mortality across South-Eastern Australia.

South-East Australia has recently been subjected to two of the worst droughts in the historical record (Millennium Drought, 2000-2009 and Big Dry, 2017-2019). Unfortunately, a lack of forest monitoring has made it difficult to determine whether widespread tree mortality has resulted from these droughts. Anecdotal observations suggest the Big Dry may have led to more significant tree mortality than the Millennium drought. Critically, to be able to robustly project future expected climate change effects on Australian vegetation, we need to assess the vulnerability of Australian trees to drought. Here we implemented a model of plant hydraulics into the Community Atmosphere Biosphere Land Exchange (CABLE) land surface model. We parameterized the drought response behaviour of five broad vegetation types, based on a common garden dry-down experiment with species originating across a rainfall gradient (188-1,125 mm/year) across South-East Australia. The new hydraulics model significantly improved (~35%-45% reduction in root mean square error) CABLE's previous predictions of latent heat fluxes during periods of water stress at two eddy covariance sites in Australia. Landscape-scale predictions of the greatest percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity (PLC) of about 40%-60%, were broadly consistent with satellite estimates of regions of the greatest change in both droughts. In neither drought did CABLE predict that trees would have reached critical PLC in widespread areas (i.e. it projected a low mortality risk), although the model highlighted critical levels near the desert regions of South-East Australia where few trees live. Overall, our experimentally constrained model results imply significant resilience to drought conferred by hydraulic function, but also highlight critical data and scientific gaps. Our approach presents a promising avenue to integrate experimental data and make regional-scale predictions of potential drought-induced hydraulic failure.

Examining land surface phenology in the tropical moist forest eco-zone of South America.

Using leaf area index (LAI) data from 1981 to 2014 in the tropical moist forest eco-zone of South America, we extracted start (SOS) and end (EOS) dates of the active growing season in forest and savanna at each pixel. Then, we detected spatiotemporal characteristics of SOS and EOS in the two vegetation types. Moreover, we analyzed relationships between interannual variations of SOS/EOS and climatic factors, and simulated SOS/EOS time series based on preceding mean air temperature and accumulated rainfall. Results show that mean SOS and EOS ranged from 260 to 330 day of year (DOY) and from 150 to 260 DOY across the study region, respectively. From 1981 to 2014, SOS advancement is more extensive than SOS delay, while EOS advancement and delay are similarly extensive. For most pixels of forest and savanna in tropical moist forest eco-zone, preceding rainfall correlates predominantly negatively with SOS but positively with EOS, while the relationship between preceding temperature and phenophases is location-specific. In addition, preceding rainfall is more extensive than preceding temperature in simulating SOS, while both preceding rainfall and temperature play an important role for simulating EOS. This study highlights the reliability of using LAI data for long-term phenological analysis in the tropical moist forest eco-zone.

Drier tropical forests are susceptible to functional changes in response to a long-term drought.

Climatic changes have profound effects on the distribution of biodiversity, but untangling the links between climatic change and ecosystem functioning is challenging, particularly in high diversity systems such as tropical forests. Tropical forests may also show different responses to a changing climate, with baseline climatic conditions potentially inducing differences in the strength and timing of responses to droughts. Trait-based approaches provide an opportunity to link functional composition, ecosystem function and environmental changes. We demonstrate the power of such approaches by presenting a novel analysis of long-term responses of different tropical forest to climatic changes along a rainfall gradient. We explore how key ecosystem's biogeochemical properties have shifted over time as a consequence of multi-decadal drying. Notably, we find that drier tropical forests have increased their deciduous species abundance and generally changed more functionally than forests growing in wetter conditions, suggesting an enhanced ability to adapt ecologically to a drying environment.

Small-scale indirect plant responses to insect herbivory could have major impacts on canopy photosynthesis and isoprene emission.

Insect herbivores cause substantial changes in the leaves they attack, but their effects on the ecophysiology of neighbouring, nondamaged leaves have never been quantified in natural canopies. We studied how winter moth (Operophtera brumata), a common herbivore in temperate forests, affects the photosynthetic and isoprene emission rates of its host plant, the pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). Through a manipulative experiment, we measured leaves on shoots damaged by caterpillars or mechanically by cutting, or left completely intact. To quantify the effects at the canopy scale, we surveyed the extent and patterns of leaf area loss in the canopy. Herbivory reduced photosynthesis both in damaged leaves and in their intact neighbours. Isoprene emission rates significantly increased after mechanical leaf damage. When scaled up to canopy-level, herbivory reduced photosynthesis by 48 ± 10%. The indirect effects of herbivory on photosynthesis in undamaged leaves (40%) were much more important than the direct effects of leaf area loss (6%). If widespread across other plant-herbivore systems, these findings suggest that insect herbivory has major and previously underappreciated influences in modifying ecosystem carbon cycling, with potential effects on atmospheric chemistry.

Windthrows control biomass patterns and functional composition of Amazon forests.

Amazon forests account for ~25% of global land biomass and tropical tree species. In these forests, windthrows (i.e., snapped and uprooted trees) are a major natural disturbance, but the rates and mechanisms of recovery are not known. To provide a predictive framework for understanding the effects of windthrows on forest structure and functional composition (DBH ≥10 cm), we quantified biomass recovery as a function of windthrow severity (i.e., fraction of windthrow tree mortality on Landsat pixels, ranging from 0%-70%) and time since disturbance for terra-firme forests in the Central Amazon. Forest monitoring allowed insights into the processes and mechanisms driving the net biomass change (i.e., increment minus loss) and shifts in functional composition. Windthrown areas recovering for between 4-27 years had biomass stocks as low as 65.2-91.7 Mg/ha or 23%-38% of those in nearby undisturbed forests (~255.6 Mg/ha, all sites). Even low windthrow severities (4%-20% tree mortality) caused decadal changes in biomass stocks and structure. While rates of biomass increment in recovering vegetation were nearly double (6.3 ± 1.4 Mg ha-1  year-1 ) those of undisturbed forests (~3.7 Mg ha-1  year-1 ), biomass loss due to post-windthrow mortality was high (up to -7.5 ± 8.7 Mg ha-1  year-1 , 8.5 years since disturbance) and unpredictable. Consequently, recovery to 90% of "pre-disturbance" biomass takes up to 40 years. Resprouting trees contributed little to biomass recovery. Instead, light-demanding, low-density genera (e.g., Cecropia, Inga, Miconia, Pourouma, Tachigali, and Tapirira) were favored, resulting in substantial post-windthrow species turnover. Shifts in functional composition demonstrate that windthrows affect the resilience of live tree biomass by favoring soft-wooded species with shorter life spans that are more vulnerable to future disturbances. As the time required for forests to recover biomass is likely similar to the recurrence interval of windthrows triggering succession, windthrows have the potential to control landscape biomass/carbon dynamics and functional composition in Amazon forests.

Multi-decadal time series of remotely sensed vegetation improves prediction of soil carbon in a subtropical grassland.

Soil carbon sequestration in agroecosystems could play a key role in climate change mitigation but will require accurate predictions of soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks over spatial scales relevant to land management. Spatial variation in underlying drivers of SOC, such as plant productivity and soil mineralogy, complicates these predictions. Recent advances in the availability of remotely sensed data make it practical to generate multidecadal time series of vegetation indices with high spatial resolution and coverage. However, the utility of such data largely is unknown, only having been tested with shorter (e.g., 1-2 yr) data summaries. Across a 2,000 ha subtropical grassland, we found that a long time series (28 yr) of a vegetation index (Enhanced Vegetation Index; EVI) derived from the Landsat 5 satellite significantly enhanced prediction of spatially varying SOC pools, while a short summary (2 yr) was an ineffective predictor. EVI was the best predictor for surface SOC (0-5 cm depth) and total measured SOC stocks (0-15 cm). The optimum models for SOC in the upper soil layer combined EVI records with elevation and calcium concentration, while deeper SOC was more strongly associated with calcium availability. We demonstrate how data from the open access Landsat archive can predict SOC stocks, a key ecosystem metric, and illustrate the rich variety of analytical approaches that can be applied to long time series of remotely sensed greenness. Overall, our results showed that SOC pools were closely coupled to EVI in this ecosystem, demonstrating that maintenance of higher average green leaf area is correlated with higher SOC. The strong associations of vegetation greenness and calcium concentration with SOC suggest that the ability to sequester additional SOC likely will rely on strategic management of pasture vegetation and soil fertility.

Landscape-scale consequences of differential tree mortality from catastrophic wind disturbance in the Amazon.

Wind disturbance can create large forest blowdowns, which greatly reduces live biomass and adds uncertainty to the strength of the Amazon carbon sink. Observational studies from within the central Amazon have quantified blowdown size and estimated total mortality but have not determined which trees are most likely to die from a catastrophic wind disturbance. Also, the impact of spatial dependence upon tree mortality from wind disturbance has seldom been quantified, which is important because wind disturbance often kills clusters of trees due to large treefalls killing surrounding neighbors. We examine (1) the causes of differential mortality between adult trees from a 300-ha blowdown event in the Peruvian region of the northwestern Amazon, (2) how accounting for spatial dependence affects mortality predictions, and (3) how incorporating both differential mortality and spatial dependence affect the landscape level estimation of necromass produced from the blowdown. Standard regression and spatial regression models were used to estimate how stem diameter, wood density, elevation, and a satellite-derived disturbance metric influenced the probability of tree death from the blowdown event. The model parameters regarding tree characteristics, topography, and spatial autocorrelation of the field data were then used to determine the consequences of non-random mortality for landscape production of necromass through a simulation model. Tree mortality was highly non-random within the blowdown, where tree mortality rates were highest for trees that were large, had low wood density, and were located at high elevation. Of the differential mortality models, the non-spatial models overpredicted necromass, whereas the spatial model slightly underpredicted necromass. When parameterized from the same field data, the spatial regression model with differential mortality estimated only 7.5% more dead trees across the entire blowdown than the random mortality model, yet it estimated 51% greater necromass. We suggest that predictions of forest carbon loss from wind disturbance are sensitive to not only the underlying spatial dependence of observations, but also the biological differences between individuals that promote differential levels of mortality.

Outer bark thickness decreases more with height on stems of fire-resistant than fire-sensitive Floridian oaks (Quercus spp.; Fagaceae).

UNLABELLED: • PREMISE OF THE STUDY: In ecosystems maintained by low-intensity surface fires, tree bark thickness is a determinant of fire-survival because it protects underlying tissues from heat damage. However, it has been unclear whether relatively thick bark i S: maintained at all heights or only near the ground where damage is most likely.• METHODS: We studied six Quercus species from the red and white clades, with three species characteristic of fire-maintained savannas and three species characteristic of forests with infrequent fire. Inner and outer bark (secondary phloem and rhytidome, respectively) thicknesses were measured at intervals from 10 to 300 cm above the ground. We used linear mixed-effects models to test for relationships among height, habitat, and clade on relative thickness (stem proportion) of total, inner, and outer bark. Bark moisture and tissue density were measured for each species at 10 cm.• KEY RESULTS: Absolute and relative total bark thickness declined with height, with no difference in height-related changes between habitat groups. Relative outer bark thickness showed a height-by-habitat interaction. There was a clade effect on relative thickness, but no interaction with height. Moisture contents were higher in inner than outer bark, and red oaks had denser bark than white oaks, but neither trait differed by habitat.• CONCLUSIONS: Quercus species characteristic of fire-prone habitats invest more in outer bark near the ground where heat damage to outer tissues is most likely. Future investigations of bark should consider the height at which measurements are made and distinguish between inner and outer bark.

Australia's Tinderbox Drought: An extreme natural event likely worsened by human-caused climate change.

We examine the characteristics and causes of southeast Australia's Tinderbox Drought (2017 to 2019) that preceded the Black Summer fire disaster. The Tinderbox Drought was characterized by cool season rainfall deficits of around -50% in three consecutive years, which was exceptionally unlikely in the context of natural variability alone. The precipitation deficits were initiated and sustained by an anomalous atmospheric circulation that diverted oceanic moisture away from the region, despite traditional indicators of drought risk in southeast Australia generally being in neutral states. Moisture deficits were intensified by unusually high temperatures, high vapor pressure deficits, and sustained reductions in terrestrial water availability. Anthropogenic forcing intensified the rainfall deficits of the Tinderbox Drought by around 18% with an interquartile range of 34.9 to -13.3% highlighting the considerable uncertainty in attributing droughts of this kind to human activity. Skillful predictability of this drought was possible by incorporating multiple remote and local predictors through machine learning, providing prospects for improving forecasting of droughts.

Contrasting carbon cycle along tropical forest aridity gradients in West Africa and Amazonia.

Tropical forests cover large areas of equatorial Africa and play a substantial role in the global carbon cycle. However, there has been a lack of biometric measurements to understand the forests' gross and net primary productivity (GPP, NPP) and their allocation. Here we present a detailed field assessment of the carbon budget of multiple forest sites in Africa, by monitoring 14 one-hectare plots along an aridity gradient in Ghana, West Africa. When compared with an equivalent aridity gradient in Amazonia, the studied West African forests generally had higher productivity and lower carbon use efficiency (CUE). The West African aridity gradient consistently shows the highest NPP, CUE, GPP, and autotrophic respiration at a medium-aridity site, Bobiri. Notably, NPP and GPP of the site are the highest yet reported anywhere for intact forests. Widely used data products substantially underestimate productivity when compared to biometric measurements in Amazonia and Africa. Our analysis suggests that the high productivity of the African forests is linked to their large GPP allocation to canopy and semi-deciduous characteristics.

Action needed to make carbon offsets from forest conservation work for climate change mitigation.

Carbon offsets from voluntary avoided-deforestation projects are generated on the basis of performance in relation to ex ante deforestation baselines. We examined the effects of 26 such project sites in six countries on three continents using synthetic control methods for causal inference. We found that most projects have not significantly reduced deforestation. For projects that did, reductions were substantially lower than claimed. This reflects differences between the project ex ante baselines and ex post counterfactuals according to observed deforestation in control areas. Methodologies used to construct deforestation baselines for carbon offset interventions need urgent revisions to correctly attribute reduced deforestation to the projects, thus maintaining both incentives for forest conservation and the integrity of global carbon accounting.

Biomaterial vaccines capturing pathogen-associated molecular patterns protect against bacterial infections and septic shock.

Most bacterial vaccines work for a subset of bacterial strains or require the modification of the antigen or isolation of the pathogen before vaccine development. Here we report injectable biomaterial vaccines that trigger potent humoral and T-cell responses to bacterial antigens by recruiting, reprogramming and releasing dendritic cells. The vaccines are assembled from regulatorily approved products and consist of a scaffold with absorbed granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and CpG-rich oligonucleotides incorporating superparamagnetic microbeads coated with the broad-spectrum opsonin Fc-mannose-binding lectin for the magnetic capture of pathogen-associated molecular patterns from inactivated bacterial-cell-wall lysates. The vaccines protect mice against skin infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, mice and pigs against septic shock from a lethal Escherichia coli challenge and, when loaded with pathogen-associated molecular patterns isolated from infected animals, uninfected animals against a challenge with different E. coli serotypes. The strong immunogenicity and low incidence of adverse events, a modular manufacturing process, and the use of components compatible with current good manufacturing practice could make this vaccine technology suitable for responding to bacterial pandemics and biothreats.

Edwardsiella tarda: A Classic Presentation of a Rare Fatal Infection, with Possible New Background Risk Factors.

BACKGROUND Edwardsiella tarda is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that is rarely pathogenic to humans, but, in patients with certain risk factors, it can lead to severe, disseminated infections. Humans are inoculated through the gastrointestinal tract while consuming undercooked or raw seafood or through skin penetration. E. tarda has been isolated from marine environments, including lakes, rivers, wells, and sewage water. Although the bacterium has not been directly isolated from seawater, it has been cultured from animals inhabiting seawater environments. In the United States, E. tarda is predominantly localized along the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico. Complications from this bacterium usually arise in patients with liver disease, iron overload, or cirrhosis or in those who are immunocompromised or on immunosuppressive therapy. CASE REPORT Our patient was a 59-year-old woman with a history of advanced lung cancer, pulmonary hypertension, liver cirrhosis, hepatitis C, and alcoholism. She initially presented to the Emergency Department in the Florida Panhandle on June 16 with colitis, which then progressed to fulminant sepsis with septic shock. Despite aggressive interventions, including intravenous hydration, broad-spectrum antibiotics, and vasopressor support, our patient succumbed to her illness approximately 34 h after initial presentation. CONCLUSIONS Although severe cases of E. tarda have been reported in patients with liver dysfunction, we believe this is the first reported case potentially complicated by concomitant lung cancer. The rise in sea water temperature, increased human consumption of raw seafood, and increased prevalence of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis may increase the incidence and mortality of E. tarda in the near future.