The alpha-1A adrenergic receptor regulates mitochondrial oxidative metabolism in the mouse heart.

AIMS: The sympathetic nervous system regulates numerous critical aspects of mitochondrial function in the heart through activation of adrenergic receptors (ARs) on cardiomyocytes. Mounting evidence suggests that α1-ARs, particularly the α1A subtype, are cardioprotective and may mitigate the deleterious effects of chronic ß-AR activation by shared ligands. The mechanisms underlying these adaptive effects remain unclear. Here, we tested the hypothesis that α1A-ARs adaptively regulate cardiomyocyte oxidative metabolism in both the uninjured and infarcted heart. METHODS: We used high resolution respirometry, fatty acid oxidation (FAO) enzyme assays, substrate-specific electron transport chain (ETC) enzyme assays, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and proteomics to characterize mitochondrial function comprehensively in the uninjured hearts of wild type and α1A-AR knockout mice and defined the effects of chronic ß-AR activation and myocardial infarction on selected mitochondrial functions. RESULTS: We found that isolated cardiac mitochondria from α1A-KO mice had deficits in fatty acid-dependent respiration, FAO, and ETC enzyme activity. TEM revealed abnormalities of mitochondrial morphology characteristic of these functional deficits. The selective α1A-AR agonist A61603 enhanced fatty-acid dependent respiration, fatty acid oxidation, and ETC enzyme activity in isolated cardiac mitochondria. The ß-AR agonist isoproterenol enhanced oxidative stress in vitro and this adverse effect was mitigated by A61603. A61603 enhanced ETC Complex I activity and protected contractile function following myocardial infarction. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these novel findings position α1A-ARs as critical regulators of cardiomyocyte metabolism in the basal state and suggest that metabolic mechanisms may underlie the protective effects of α1A-AR activation in the failing heart.

ß-myosin heavy chain is induced by pressure overload in a minor subpopulation of smaller mouse cardiac myocytes.

RATIONALE: Induction of the fetal hypertrophic marker gene ß-myosin heavy chain (ß-MyHC) is a signature feature of pressure overload hypertrophy in rodents. ß-MyHC is assumed present in all or most enlarged myocytes. OBJECTIVE: To quantify the number and size of myocytes expressing endogenous ß-MyHC by a flow cytometry approach. METHODS AND RESULTS: Myocytes were isolated from the left ventricle of male C57BL/6J mice after transverse aortic constriction (TAC), and the fraction of cells expressing endogenous ß-MyHC was quantified by flow cytometry on 10,000 to 20,000 myocytes with use of a validated ß-MyHC antibody. Side scatter by flow cytometry in the same cells was validated as an index of myocyte size. ß-MyHC-positive myocytes constituted 3 ± 1% of myocytes in control hearts (n=12), increasing to 25 ± 10% at 3 days to 6 weeks after TAC (n=24, P<0.01). ß-MyHC-positive myocytes did not enlarge with TAC and were smaller at all times than myocytes without ß-MyHC (≈70% as large, P<0.001). ß-MyHC-positive myocytes arose by addition of ß-MyHC to α-MyHC and had more total MyHC after TAC than did the hypertrophied myocytes that had α-MyHC only. Myocytes positive for ß-MyHC were found in discrete regions of the left ventricle in 3 patterns: perivascular, in areas with fibrosis, and in apparently normal myocardium. CONCLUSIONS: ß-MyHC protein is induced by pressure overload in a minor subpopulation of smaller cardiac myocytes. The hypertrophied myocytes after TAC have α-MyHC only. These data challenge the current paradigm of the fetal hypertrophic gene program and identify a new subpopulation of smaller working ventricular myocytes with more myosin.

Integrated systems modeling of severe asthma: Exploration of IL-33/ST2 antagonism.

Asthma is a complex, heterogeneous disease with a high unmet medical need, despite therapies targeting a multitude of pathways. The ability to quantitatively integrate preclinical and clinical data on these pathways could aid in the development and testing of novel targets and therapeutics. In this work, we develop a computational model of asthma biology, including key cell types and mediators, and create a virtual population capturing clinical heterogeneity. The simulated responses to therapies targeting IL-13, IL-4Rα, IL-5, IgE, and TSLP demonstrate agreement with clinical endpoints and biomarkers of type 2 (T2) inflammation, including blood eosinophils, FEV1, IgE, and FeNO. We use the model to explore the potential benefit of targeting the IL-33 pathway with anti-IL-33 and anti-ST2. Model predictions are compared with data on blood eosinophils, FeNO, and FEV1 from recent anti-IL-33 and anti-ST2 trials and used to interpret trial results based on pathway biology and pharmacology. Results of sensitivity analyses on the contributions of IL-33 to the predicted biomarker changes suggest that anti-ST2 therapy reduces circulating blood eosinophil levels primarily through its impact on eosinophil progenitor maturation and IL-5-dependent survival, and induces changes in FeNO and FEV1 through its effect on immune cells involved in T2 cytokine production. Finally, we also investigate the impact of ST2 genetics on the conferred benefit of anti-ST2. The model includes representation of a wide array of biologic mechanisms and interventions that will provide mechanistic insight and support clinical program design for a wide range of novel therapies during drug development.

Isolation and culture of adult mouse cardiac myocytes.

Cardiac myocytes are activated by hormonal and mechanical signals and respond in a variety of ways, from altering contractile function to inducing cardio-protection and growth responses. The use of genetic mouse models allows one to examine the role of cardiac-specific and other genes in cardiac function, hypertrophy, cardio-protection, and diseases such as ischemia and heart failure. However, studies at the cellular level have been hampered by a lack of suitable techniques for isolating and culturing calcium-tolerant, adult mouse cardiac myocytes. We have developed a straightforward, reproducible protocol for isolating and culturing large numbers of adult mouse cardiac myocytes. This protocol is based on the traditional approach of retrograde perfusion of collagenase through the coronary arteries to digest the extracellular matrix of the heart and release rod-shaped myocytes. However, we have made modifications that are essential for isolating calcium-tolerant, rod-shaped adult mouse cardiac myocytes and maintaining them in culture. This protocol yields freshly isolated adult mouse myocytes that are suitable for biochemical assays and for measuring contractile function and calcium transients, and cultured myocytes that are suitable for most biochemical and signaling assays, as well as gene transduction using adenovirus.

Cardiac transgenic matrix metalloproteinase-2 expression directly induces impaired contractility.

OBJECTIVE: Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) plays a major role in dysfunctional ventricular remodeling following myocardial injury induced by ischemia/reperfusion and heart failure. To directly assess the role of MMP-2 in the absence of superimposed injury, we generated cardiac-specific, constitutively active MMP-2 transgenic mice. METHODS: Morphologic and functional studies were carried out using both intact and demembranated (skinned) right ventricular trabeculae dissected from hearts of 8-month-old MMP-2 transgenic mice and wild-type controls (WT). RESULTS: Electron micrographs showed that compared to WT, MMP-2 myocardium had no gross, ultrastructural changes (no myocyte dropout or gross fibrosis). However, MMP-2 myocardium contained fibroblasts with abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum, consistent with an activated synthetic phenotype, suggesting extracellular matrix remodeling in MMP-2 trabeculae. Consistent with remodeling, mechanical studies found increased stiffness of intact unstimulated trabeculae (increasing sarcomere lengths from 2 to 2.3 microm caused a greater rise of passive muscle force for MMP-2 trabeculae versus WT). With electrical stimulation, MMP-2 trabeculae generated substantially less active force at all sarcomere lengths. Moreover, inotropic responses to increases of bath [Ca2+], pacing frequency, and isoproterenol were all significantly reduced versus WT trabeculae. Skinned fiber assessment of myofilament function revealed that maximum Ca2+-activated force of skinned MMP-2 trabeculae was reduced to approximately 50% of WT, suggesting a myofilament contraction defect. CONCLUSION: Cardiac-specific, constitutively active MMP-2 expression leads to impaired contraction and diminished responses to inotropic stimulation. These findings indicate that MMP-2 can directly impair ventricular function in the absence of superimposed injury.

Localization of the mouse alpha1A-adrenergic receptor (AR) in the brain: alpha1AAR is expressed in neurons, GABAergic interneurons, and NG2 oligodendrocyte progenitors.

alpha(1)-Adrenergic receptors (ARs) are not well defined in the central nervous system. The particular cell types and areas that express these receptors are uncertain because of the lack of high avidity antibodies and selective ligands. We have developed transgenic mice that either systemically overexpress the human alpha(1A)-AR subtype fused with the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) or express the EGFP protein alone under the control of the mouse alpha(1A)-AR promoter. We confirm our transgenic model against the alpha(1A)-AR knockout mouse, which expresses the LacZ gene in place of the coding region for the alpha(1A)-AR. By using these models, we have now determined cellular localization of the alpha(1A)-AR in the brain, at the protein level. The alpha(1A)-AR or the EGFP protein is expressed prominently in neuronal cells in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, midbrain, pontine olivary nuclei, trigeminal nuclei, cerebellum, and spinal cord. The types of neurons were diverse, and the alpha(1A)-AR colocalized with markers for glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Recordings from alpha(1A)-AR EGFP-expressing cells in the stratum oriens of the hippocampal CA1 region confirmed that these cells were interneurons. We could not detect expression of the alpha(1A)-AR in mature astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, or cerebral blood vessels, but we could detect the alpha(1A)-AR in oligodendrocyte progenitors. We conclude that the alpha(1A)-AR is abundant in the brain, expressed in various types of neurons, and may regulate the function of oligodendrocyte progenitors, interneurons, GABA, and NMDA receptor containing neurons.

A method for the extraction of high-quality RNA and protein from single small samples of arteries and veins preserved in RNAlater.

INTRODUCTION: The mesenteric vasculature plays an important role in cardiovascular homeostasis, both in terms of arterial resistance and venous capacitance. However, the limited quantity of tissue available and the activity of RNases and proteases during dissection of the vessels make it difficult to study gene and protein expression in this tissue. METHODS: The mesenteric arcade was harvested from rats. The mesenteric arteries and veins were separated from each other and from contaminating adipose, nerve, and connective tissue by blunt dissection while submerged in RNAlater (Ambion). Total ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein were extracted from the same mesenteric artery and vein samples. RESULTS: Good quality RNA and protein were obtained by this method. The method preserved the content of proteins including biglycan, adrenergic receptors, estrogen receptors, and protein kinase Cdelta, and also preserved the differential expression of estrogen receptors. DISCUSSION: A method for the isolation of high-quality RNA and protein from the arteries and veins of the same mesenteric sample is described. The content of proteins from a variety of cellular compartments and molecular weights was preserved by this method, as well as differential expression of proteins. This method will facilitate the study of gene and protein expression in the mesenteric vasculature in response to pharmacologic treatments and in disease states.

Vascular ECE-1 mRNA expression decreases in response to estrogens.

DNA microarrays were used to identify new targets of estrogen in the vasculature. Ovariectomized rats were treated with estradiol, genistein or daidzein, for four days. [33P]dCTP-labelled probes synthesized from mesenteric artery RNA were hybridized with DNA microarrays. Analysis of the microarray data identified endothelin converting enzyme-1 (ECE-1) as a gene whose expression was inhibited by treatment with estrogen, genistein, or daidzein. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR was used to confirm the data from the DNA microarrays. Reversal of the estrogen and phytoestrogen effect on ECE-1 expression by ICI 182,780 suggested that the inhibition was an estrogen receptor response. An inhibition of ECE-1 mRNA expression by estrogen or the phytoestrogens has not been previously reported. These data highlight the power of DNA microarray technology to identify new gene expression targets of estrogen in the vasculature. Moreover, the data suggest that genistein and daidzein inhibit ECE-1 expression by an estrogen receptor-mediated mechanism.

Estrogen decreases biglycan mRNA expression in resistance blood vessels.

This study was designed to identify new gene targets of estrogen in the mesenteric arteries and to determine whether the soy phytoestrogens could mimic estrogen effects. Ovariectomized rats were treated with estradiol, genistein, or daidzein for 4 days. The mesenteric arteries were harvested, total RNA was extracted, mRNA was reverse transcribed in the presence of [33P]dCTP, and the labeled probes were hybridized with DNA microarrays. Analysis of the microarray data identified biglycan as a target of estrogenic regulation. Semiquantitative RT-PCR was used to confirm and quantitate the decrease in biglycan gene expression in response to estrogen (-37%), genistein (-15%), and daidzein (-10%). Treatment with the pure estrogen receptor antagonist ICI-182,780 reversed the inhibition of biglycan gene expression. The decrease in biglycan gene expression in response to estrogens was paralleled with a decrease in biglycan protein expression. Biglycan protein was localized to the media of the mesenteric arteries by immunohistochemistry. Collectively, these data suggest that biglycan is a vascular protein regulated at the genomic level by estrogens.

New technique for measurement of left ventricular pressure in conscious mice.

Concern about the effects of anesthesia on physiological measurements led us to develop methodology to assess left ventricular (LV) pressure in conscious mice. Polyethylene-50 tubing filled with heparinized saline was implanted in the LV cavity through its apex via an abdominal approach and exteriorized to the back of the animal. This surgery was done under anesthesia with either an intraperitoneal injection of ketamine (80 mg/kg) and xylazine (5 mg/kg) (K+X) in 11 mice or isoflurane (ISF; 1.5 vol%) by inhalation in 14 mice. Postoperatively, mice were trained daily to lie quietly head first in a plastic cone. LV pressure, the first derivative of LV pressure (dP/dt), and heart rate (HR) in the conscious state were compared between the two groups at 3 days and 1 wk after recovery from surgery using a 1.4-Fr Millar catheter inserted into the LV through the tubing, with the mice lying quietly in the plastic cone. Acutely during anesthesia, K+X decreased HR (from 698 to 298 beats/min), LV systolic pressure (from 107 to 65 mmHg), and maximal dP/dt (dP/dt(max)) (from 15,724 to 4,445 mmHg/s), all P < 0.01. Similar but less marked negative chronotropic and inotropic effects were seen with ISF. HR and dP/dt(max) were decreased significantly in K+X mice 3 days after surgery compared with those anesthetized with ISF (655 vs. 711 beats/min, P < 0.05; 14,448 vs. 18,048 mmHg/s, P < 0.001) but increased to the same level as in ISF mice 1 wk after surgery. In ISF mice, recovery of function occurred rapidly and there were no differences in LV variables between 3 days and 1 wk. LV pressure and dP/dt can be measured in conscious mice with a micromanometer catheter inserted through tubing implanted permanently in the LV apex. Anesthesia with either K+X or, to a lesser extent, ISF, depressed LV function acutely. This depression of function persisted for 3 days after surgery with K+X (but not ISF) and did not recover completely until 1 wk postanesthesia.