Effects of chronic workplace harassment on mental health and alcohol misuse: a long-term follow-up.

BACKGROUND: Research on the impacts of exposure to workplace harassment (WH) is largely cross-sectional, and existing prospective studies generally are between two and five years of follow-up, with the longest US study being 10 years. However, the effects of exposure to WH may persist longer, particularly if exposure has been chronic. This study fills this gap by examining effects of prior exposure to chronic sexual and generalized WH on psychological distress and alcohol misuse over an approximately 25 year study period. METHODS: Individuals originally recruited from a university-employed sample in the United States were surveyed at 8 time points from 1996-2007 and again in 2020-2021. A series of hybrid path analyses were tested on a sample of 2352 individuals, regressing recent outcomes on latent classes of harassment derived from earlier survey waves, controlling baseline outcomes and demographics. Model fit was assessed using a variety of fit statistics, and standardized regression coefficients were used to assess significance of individual pathways. RESULTS: Prior exposure to chronic sexual harassment had significant direct associations with psychological distress, alcohol misuse, and recent stressors at follow-up. Prior exposure to chronic generalized harassment had significant direct associations with lower income and alcohol misuse. Both forms of WH were significantly indirectly associated with psychological distress through recent stressors at follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to chronic WH is associated with long-term effects on psychological distress and alcohol misuse in a sample representing a wide variety of job types and racial/ethnic identities. Enforcement of anti-sexual harassment law and policies and enactment of policies and laws to prevent generalized harassment/workplace bullying are imperative for the protection of worker health.

Effects of Workplace Generalized and Sexual Harassment on Abusive Drinking Among First Year Male and Female College Students: Does Prior Drinking Experience Matter?

BACKGROUND: Workplace harassment, a known risk factor for adult drinking, is understudied in college samples, but may help explain observed gender differences in drinking patterns. OBJECTIVE: We examine effects of sexual and generalized workplace harassment on changes in drinking behavior over the first semesters of college, and the extent to which these effects differ based on prematriculation drinking for men and women students. METHOD: Data derive from two waves of a longitudinal study of eight Midwestern colleges and universities. Data were collected from 2080 employed students via a Web-based survey assessing sexual and generalized workplace harassment, stressful life events, drinking to intoxication, and binge drinking prior to freshman year (fall 2011) and approximately one year later (summer to fall 2012). At baseline, lifetime drinking status, frequency of alcohol consumption, and demographics were also assessed. RESULTS: Linear-mixed modeling indicated that employed women students who were frequent drinkers prematriculation were at risk for high levels of drinking associated with workplace harassment, while men who were nondrinkers were most at risk of increasing problem drinking over time when exposed to workplace harassment. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol use prevention efforts directed towards employed students are needed both prior to and during college, to instruct students how to identify workplace harassment and cope in healthier ways with stressful workplace experiences. These efforts might be particularly useful in stemming problematic drinking among women who drink frequently prior to college, and preventing men who are nondrinkers upon college entry from initiating problematic drinking during subsequent enrollment years.

Age Cohort Variation in Drinking among People with Physical Impairments: Politically-oriented Coping in the Wake of the Great Recession.

People with physical impairments are at greater risk for economic hardship and more alcohol-related problems compared to the general population. We address age cohort differences in modes of coping with economic adversity and the extent to which modes of coping explain the relationships between age cohort membership and drinking outcomes among people with physical impairments. 176 respondents with physical impairments derived from a national sample completed a mail survey. Using SEM, we demonstrate that members of the Generation X age cohort manifest higher levels of alcohol consumption and problem-related drinking compared to baby boomers due to their lesser tendency to engage in politically-oriented coping to deal with economic adversity. Within the context of social movements contesting the disadvantaged social status of people with disabilities, the Generation X age cohort manifests both more limited political engagement and higher levels of alcohol consumption and problem-related drinking among people with physical impairments.

It isn't all just fun and games: Collegiate participation in extracurricular activities and risk for generalized and sexual harassment, psychological distress, and alcohol use.

Collegiate extracurricular activities, despite their benefits, may place students at an increased risk for experiencing harassment. This study utilizes multiple waves of data from an online longitudinal survey to examine how participation in college activities (intramural sports, fraternities/sororities, school clubs) relates to experiences of sexual and generalized harassment and outcomes (psychological distress, heavy alcohol use) among undergraduates (N = 1852, 58.6% female, 57.4% White) in the Midwestern United States. Activity participation was related to harassment, but the pattern depended on the activity, harassment type, and sex. Fraternity/sorority involvement was associated with generalized harassment, whereas school club involvement was linked to both generalized and sexual harassment. Female intramural athletes were at an increased risk to experience both harassment types. In addition to direct relations, activity participation was indirectly linked to future psychological distress (depression, anxiety) and heavy alcohol use via harassment. Implications for intervention with this college student population are discussed.

Risk factors and outcomes of chronic sexual harassment during the transition to college: Examination of a two-part growth mixture model.

A two-part latent growth mixture model was implemented in order to examine heterogeneity in the growth of sexual harassment (SH) victimization in college and university students, and the extent to which SH class membership explains substance use and mental health outcomes for certain groups of students. Demographic risk factors, mental health, and substance use were examined as they related to chronically experienced SH victimization. Incoming freshmen students (N = 2855; 58% female; 54% White) completed a survey at five time points. In addition to self-reporting gender, race, and sexual orientation, students completed measures of sexual harassment, anxiety, depression, binge drinking, and marijuana use. Overall, self-reported SH declined upon college entry, although levels rebounded by the third year of college. Results also supported a two-class solution (Infrequent and Chronic) for SH victimization. Being female, White, and a sexual minority were linked to being classified into the Chronic (relative to the Infrequent) SH class. In turn, Chronic SH class membership predicted greater anxiety, depression, and substance use, supporting a mediational model.

Chronic Generalized Harassment During College: Influences on Alcohol and Drug Use.

The experience of chronic generalized harassment from others can have a deleterious impact on individuals over time. Specifically, coping resources may be taxed, resulting in the use of avoidant coping strategies such as substance use. However, little is known about the experience of chronic generalized harassment (e.g., verbal hostility, manipulation by others, exclusion from important events) and its impact on substance use in collegiate populations. In the current study, we examined the latent growth of generalized harassment across the transition from high school to college, whether this growth was heterogeneous, and the relationships between latent generalized harassment classifications and substance use. Incoming freshmen students (N = 2890; 58% female; 53% white) at eight colleges in Illinois completed a web survey at five points: fall 2011 (baseline), spring 2012 (T1), fall 2012 (T2), fall 2013 (T3) and fall 2014 (T4). Students were required to be at least 18 years old at baseline, and were compensated with online gift certificates. Two-part latent class growth analysis was implemented in order to examine heterogeneous growth over time. The results supported a two-class solution (infrequent and chronic classes) for generalized harassment. Growth in harassment was characterized by a decrease from baseline through college entry, with a recovery in rates by T3. Members of the chronically harassed class had greater mean generalized harassment over time, and were less likely to report zero instances of harassment experiences. As hypothesized, membership in the chronic class predicted future binge drinking, drinking to intoxication, problems due to alcohol use, and cigarette use, but not marijuana use. Future interventions should focus on providing college students with resources to help cope with distress stemming from persistent generalized harassment from peers, faculty, and other individuals in higher-education settings.

Lingering Effects of COVID-19 Stressors on Mental Health and Alcohol Use in Middle Aged to Older Adults.

Background: Older adults have faced not only health threats but grave mental health challenges since the emergence of the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Using factor analysis, this study is the first to identify the underlying dimensions of COVID-19-related stressors, then examine the relationship between these factors and mental health and alcohol use/misuse longitudinally in a middle aged to older adult sample in the United States. Methods: As part of a long-term follow-up study, 921 survey participants completed measures of COVID-related stressors, psychological distress, and alcohol use/misuse in a 2020 survey. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to examine the dimensionality of COVID-related stress. Regression models were utilized to examine relationships between the extracted factors and depression, anxiety, and alcohol-related outcomes measured approximately one year later, in 2021. Results: Four dimensions of COVID-19 stressors were extracted, including 1) jobs, finances and loss of routine; 2) practical difficulties; 3) social worries and challenges; and 4) supply shortages. Practical difficulties were associated with higher depression at follow-up, while jobs, finances and loss of routine were associated with past 12 month frequency of intoxication at follow-up. Conclusions: Challenges from the pandemic may have longer-term implications for mental health in older adults past the acute phase of the pandemic. It is important to allocate sufficient attention and resources to the prevention of late life depression and mental health as policymakers and health professionals continue to deal with the pandemic and future variants of the virus.

Workplace harassment, psychological distress, and alcohol problems: A longitudinal study.

OBJECTIVES: Addresses the role that psychological distress (ie depression and anxiety) plays in mediating the relationship between workplace harassment (ie sexual and generalized workplace harassment) and increased alcohol problems among employed college students. PARTICIPANTS: Two waves of data were collected from 905 study participants sampled from eight colleges and universities in the Midwestern United States. METHODS: A mediation analysis was conducted using Hayes's PROCESS macro with bootstrapping. RESULTS: The findings indicated that that workplace harassment predicts increased alcohol problems, and that the association between harassment and alcohol problems is mediated by psychological distress. CONCLUSIONS: Workplace harassment is a prevalent problem associated with increased alcohol problems and poor mental health for both genders in the U.S. collegiate workforce. Mental health practitioners and counselors at colleges can help students identify such issues and determine which steps a student might take to address them.

Workplace Harassment and Health: A Long Term Follow up.

OBJECTIVE: We examine relationships between workplace harassment (WH) and onset of health conditions over a 23-year period. METHODS: Participants were surveyed at seven points between 1997-2006 and again in 2020. Regression analyses (n = 921) assessed effects of chronic WH exposure on onset or recent health conditions by 2020. RESULTS: Growth mixture modeling revealed infrequent and chronic classes of generalized workplace harassment (GWH; 33.39% chronic) and sexual harassment (SH; 32.32% chronic). Prevalence of health conditions ranged from 3.71% for myocardial infarction to 43.06% for hypertension. Analysis via propensity score matching showed chronic WH class membership increased odds of coronary heart disease (GWH, odds ratio [OR] = 3.42, P < 0.05), arthritic/rheumatic conditions (SH, OR = 1.56, P < 0.05), and recent migraine (SH, OR = 1.68, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Workplace harassment is associated with coronary heart disease, arthritic/rheumatic conditions, and migraine. Worker health can be protected through strengthening and enforcing organizational and social antiharassment policies and laws.

Shift work domains and their interactions with empty calorie food/beverage consumption: A 14-day intensive longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Shift work has been linked to unhealthy eating behaviors such as imbalanced diet, or increased empty calorie food/beverage consumption. However, most research has focused on the impact of shift timing. The concept of shift work is complex, and it contains several domains such as shift timing, intensity, and speed. Previous studies have suggested that greater shift intensity and quicker shift speed may contribute to adverse health effects. However, evidence regarding associations between other domains of shift work and empty calorie food/beverage consumption has been relatively lacking. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate how other shift work domains related to empty calorie food/beverage consumption and whether different shift work domains interacted to influence the intake of foods or beverages. DESIGN: A 14-day intensive longitudinal study employing ecological momentary assessment. SETTINGS AND PARTICIPANTS: Eighty registered nurses working in 24 accredited Taiwanese hospitals (i.e., 9 medical centers, 12 regional hospitals, and 3 district hospitals) were recruited. METHODS: During the study period, a convenience sample of 77 participants completed 2444 momentary surveys about empty calorie food/beverage consumption on a smartphone. Three shift work domains (shift timing, intensity, and speed) were evaluated based on registry-based work schedules. To study how these shift work domains influenced empty calorie food/beverage consumption, we employed three-level mixed-effects regression models for data analyses. RESULTS: Findings suggested that greater night shift intensity increased the likelihood of sugar-sweetened beverage intake (odds ratio = 1.64, 95% confidence interval [1.01, 2.68]). The impacts of work shift intensity and shift timing on sugar-sweetened beverage consumption varied by shift speed. Among participants assigned a schedule with either medium or rapid shift speed, higher work shift intensity was associated with a higher probability of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption. Compared to day shifts, those who were assigned a quicker shift speed on evening shifts were more likely to consume sugar-sweetened beverages. However, associations between night shift intensity and sugar-sweetened beverage intake did not change by shift speed. Furthermore, shift intensity and shift timing did not interact to affect empty calorie food/beverage consumption. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated assignments of shift schedules (i.e., high night shift intensity, more changes in shift timings) might influence workers' consumption of empty calorie foods/beverages. Therefore, identifying and mitigating hazardous shift schedules may help to improve shift workers' eating behaviors and benefit their overall health.

Relationships between school harassment and problematic drinking in a college sample: Is need for approval a moderator?

Objectives: Examines whether a personality characteristic, need for approval, moderates the relationship between harassment exposure and alcohol misuse over time in a college sample, and compare the results between genders. Participants: Six waves of data (fall 2011 to fall 2015) were collected from 1,240 study participants sampled from eight colleges and universities in the Midwestern United States. Methods: Two-level mixed modeling was conducted separately for exposure to sexual and generalized harassment and modeled separately for women and men. Results: In men only, need for approval significantly moderated the relationship between generalized harassment and binge drinking over time, where a higher need for approval put male students at increased risk. Conclusions: Harassment is a risk factor contributing to high levels of drinking among college students. School counseling centers and mental health professionals should take this factor into consideration, as well as individual personality characteristics when addressing student health and wellness.

Employment Precarity and Increased Risk of Hazardous Occupational Exposures Among Residents of High Socioeconomic Hardship Neighborhoods.

BACKGROUND: While there is evidence that workers in nonstandard employment arrangements are disproportionately exposed to recognized occupational hazards, existing studies have not comprehensively examined associations between employment precarity and exposure to occupational hazards for these workers in the USA. The aim of this study was to examine relationships between employment precarity and occupational hazards in two contiguous high socio-economic hardship neighborhoods in Chicago. METHODS: Using a community-based participatory research approach, community researchers administered a community-developed survey to 489 residents of Greater Lawndale who reported current or recent employment in a job that met at least one characteristic of precarious employment (e.g. unpredictable schedule, insecure work, no living wage/benefits). Employment precarity was calculated using a modified version of the Employment Precarity Index (EPI) developed by the Poverty and Employment Precarity in Southern Ontario group. We modeled the association between employment precarity and occupational exposures using logistic regression models. RESULTS: We identified a high prevalence of precarious employment in this sample, as well as a high prevalence of self-reported exposure to recognized occupational hazards. Increases in relative employment precarity were significantly associated with self-reported exposure to chemical and biological hazards, physical hazards, and slip, trip, strike, fall, trap or crush hazards at work. CONCLUSIONS: Results highlight the importance of using community research approaches and robust measures of employment characteristics, such as the EPI, to evaluate associations between employment precarity and hazardous exposures. These results suggest that variability in employment situations and resultant relative employment precarity are important predictors of exposure to recognized occupational hazards. Findings also suggest that health inequities observed among precariously employed workers may be partly explained by increased risk for exposure to occupational hazards, which has implications for community health and should be investigated in future longitudinal research.

Evaluating the association of workplace psychosocial stressors with occupational injury, illness, and assault.

This research project characterizes occupational injuries, illnesses, and assaults (OIIAs) as a negative outcome associated with worker exposure to generalized workplace abuse/harassment, sexual harassment, and job threat and pressure. Data were collected in a nationwide random-digit-dial telephone survey conducted during 2003-2004. There were 2151 study interviews conducted in English and Spanish. Analyses included cross tabulation with Pearson's Chi-Square and logistic regression analyses. Three hundred and fifty-one study participants reported having an OIIA during the 12 months preceding the study. Occurrences of generalized workplace harassment (OR = 1.53; CI = 1.33-1.75, p ≤ 0.05); sexual harassment (OR = 1. 18; CI = 1.04-.34, p ≤ 0.05); and job pressure and threat (OR = 1.26; CI = 1.10-1.45, p ≤ 0.05) were significantly associated with reporting an OIIA. The psychosocial environment is significantly associated with an increased risk of OIIA. Further research is needed to understand causal pathways and to explore potential interventions.

Caregiver Burden, Work-Family Conflict, Family-Work Conflict, and Mental Health of Caregivers: A Mediational Longitudinal Study.

Caregivers are responsible for the care of another, such as a young adult, disabled child, elderly parent, or sick spouse. Individuals who have caregiving responsibilities must blend the often-contradictory behavioral expectations from the different roles in which they reside. Building on the theoretical foundations of Conservation of Resources theory, this study tests a mediational model explicating the process through which caregiver burden impacts mental health through work-family conflict among a community sample of 1,007 unpaid caregivers in the greater Chicago area who responded to a mail survey at three time points. Structural equation modeling analyses indicate strain-based conflict as being a consistent mediator between caregiver burden and mental health at baseline and two years later. These findings can inform practice and policy for workers with caregiving responsibilities.

Shift work relationships with same- and subsequent-day empty calorie food and beverage consumption.

Objectives Shift work may contribute to unhealthy eating behaviors. However, the evidence is built mainly on comparisons of eating behaviors between shift and non-shift workers. Growing research has suggested daily experiences and exposures may contribute to daily fluctuations in people's food consumption. The purpose of this study was to examine within-person associations between shift work and same- and subsequent-day empty calorie food/beverage consumption. Methods This was a 14-day intensive longitudinal study using ecological momentary assessment. A convenience sample of 80 hospital registered nurses working a rotating shift in Taiwan completed a 21-item food checklist assessing their empty food/beverage consumption (ie, fast/fried food, sweet and salty snacks, sugar-sweetened beverages) four times at random daily. Daily shift work (ie, day, evening, or night shift) was derived from the registry-based work schedule. Three-level mixed-effects regression models were employed for hypothesis testing. Results A total of 77 participants with 2444 momentary assessments were included in the final analysis. The results suggested that participants on night compared to day shifts had higher likelihoods of fast/fried food intake [adjusted odds ratio (OR adj) 1.7, 95% CI 1.2-2.6] and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption (OR adj1.5, 95% CI 1.0-2.1). However, there were no significant associations between shift work and subsequent-day empty calorie food/beverage consumption. Conclusions Night shift work is associated with same-day increased empty calorie food/beverage consumption among workers. Strategies that help to prevent unhealthy eating behaviors on night shifts may help to reduce rotating shift workers' empty calorie food/beverage consumption and ultimately improve their health.

Terrorism, distress, and drinking: vulnerability and protective factors.

Research has demonstrated effects of 9/11 on distress and drinking outcomes in individuals directly affected and indirectly affected across the United States. Fewer studies have addressed vulnerability and protective factors shown to moderate the effects of stress exposure. We report findings from a Midwestern workplace cohort study. Respondents to a 6 wave longitudinal mail survey completed questionnaires prior to September 11, 2001 and again in 2003 and 2005. Regression analyses encompassed measures of terrorism-related beliefs and fears, workplace stressors (sexual harassment, generalized abuse and low decision latitude), marital and parental status, and perceived social support in 2003, and distress and deleterious drinking outcomes in 2005. Analyses showed that terrorism-related fears significantly interacted with workplace stressors and interpersonal social relationships in predicting distress, drinking or both, controlling for pre-9/11 distress and drinking. Gender differences were also found. This article suggests that certain individuals may be at heightened risk for distressful reactions to and/or deleterious drinking resulting from terrorism-related issues and fears due to additional risk factors involving workplace stressors and inadequate interpersonal bonds. However, limitations of the study were noted and future research was recommended.

The relationship between terrorism and distress and drinking: two years after September 11, 2001.

This study examined: 1) the prevalence of negative beliefs related to terrorism and 2) whether these beliefs were related to distress and drinking. Respondents (N = 1453) in a five-wave longitudinal cohort study sampled from a United States university workplace were surveyed by mail between 1996 and 2003. Instruments assessed were: negative beliefs related to 9/11/01, distress (depression, anxiety, somatization, PTSD [post-traumatic stress disorder]), and drinking (frequency, quantity, escapist motives, binge drinking, drinking to intoxication, and problem-related drinking). Regression analyses examined relationships between beliefs and mental health. A sizable percentage of respondents experienced terrorism-related negative beliefs. Higher negative belief scores were related to greater distress and problematic drinking in 2003, controlling for sociodemographic variables and (in most cases) pre-9/11 distress and drinking. Study limitations were noted and future research was recommended.

Prevalence and mental health correlates of harassment and discrimination in the workplace: results from a national study.

This study describes past-year prevalence and effects on mental health and drinking outcomes for harassment and discrimination in the workplace (HDW) in a nationally representative random digit dial phone survey conducted in 2003-2004 (n = 2,151). HDW measures included experiences and perceptions of sexual harassment (SH) and generalized workplace harassment (GWH), and perceived harassment or discrimination because of race or ethnicity. Prevalence was examined by sex, race, age, occupation, marital status, and education. Effects of HDW were assessed controlling for demo-graphics and job and life stressors. Experiencing multiple types of HDW was common. SH was more prevalent among women, and Blacks and those of other or mixed race or ethnicity experienced the highest levels of HDW overall. HDW variables explained additional variance in problem drinking and mental health beyond life and job stressors, particularly for women. This study demonstrates that HDW is a prevalent problem associated with poor mental health and problem drinking in the U.S. workforce.

Health and Safety of Limited English Speaking Asian Homecare Aides in Chicago: A Pilot Study.

OBJECTIVES: To identify health and safety hazards and needs among limited English speaking Asian home care aides, and characterize their acculturation status and how it affects their health and safety. METHODS: Surveyed 60 home care aides and interviewed six home care service providers to assess health and safety hazards and needs of the study population. RESULTS: The majority of the study participants were older and did not speak English or did not speak English well. They communicated with senior clients in their native language only or most of the time. Many experienced work related injuries and musculoskeletal pain. DISCUSSION: The Asian homecare aides met the critical needs of an aging community. They experienced many challenges working as a home care aide and as a result of cultural barriers.

The impact of startle reactivity to unpredictable threat on the relation between bullying victimization and internalizing psychopathology.

BACKGROUND: Being bullied has detrimental effects on mental health functioning. Individuals who are highly reactive to unpredictable threats (U-threat) may be particularly vulnerable to the negative consequences of being bullied. For them, persistent, unpredictable bullying likely elicits chronic anticipatory anxiety and depression. The aim of the present study was to examine the main and interactive effects of aversive reactivity to U-threat and past-year bullying victimization on current anxiety and depressive symptoms. METHODS: Seventy-one young adults (ages 17-19) completed a well-validated threat-of-shock task used to probe reactivity to both U-threat and predictable threat (P-threat). Startle eyeblink potentiation was recorded to index aversive responding. RESULTS: We found a main effect of bullying, such that individuals with more bullying experience exhibited greater anxiety and depressive symptoms than individuals with less bullying experience. There was also a bullying by U-threat reactivity interaction such that among individuals with high reactivity to U-threat, more bullying experience was associated with more anxiety and depressive symptoms. Among individuals with low U-threat reactivity, there was no association between bullying and internalizing symptoms. There were no main or interactive effects involving reactivity to P-threat. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these results suggest that among individuals who are bullied, those who are sensitive to U-threat are particularly vulnerable to depression and anxiety in young adulthood. These individuals may represent a high-risk group for the development of internalizing psychopathology.