Secretome of bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells cultured in a dynamic system induces neuroprotection and modulates microglial responsiveness in an α-synuclein overexpression rat model.

BACKGROUND AIMS: Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder. The etiology of the disease remains largely unknown, but evidence have suggested that the overexpression and aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) play key roles in the pathogenesis and progression of PD. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have been earning attention in this field, mainly due to their paracrine capacity. The bioactive molecules secreted by MSCs, i.e. their secretome, have been associated with enhanced neuronal survival as well as a strong modulatory capacity of the microenvironments where the disease develops. The selection of the appropriate animal model is crucial in studies of efficacy assessment. Given the involvement of α-syn in the pathogenesis of PD, the evidence generated from the use of animal models that develop a pathologic phenotype due to the action of this protein is extremely valuable. Therefore, in this work, we established an animal model based on the viral vector-mediated overexpression of A53T α-syn and studied the impact of the secretome of bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells MSC(M) as a therapeutic strategy. METHODS: Adult male rats were subjected to α-syn over expression in the nigrostriatal pathway to model dopaminergic neurodegeneration. The impact of locally administered secretome treatment from MSC(M) was studied. Motor impairments were assessed throughout the study coupled with whole-region (striatum and substantia nigra) confocal microscopy evaluation of histopathological changes associated with dopaminergic neurodegeneration and glial cell reactivity. RESULTS: Ten weeks after lesion induction, the animals received secretome injections in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and striatum (STR). The secretome used was produced from bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells MSC(M) expanded in a spinner flask (SP) system. Nine weeks later, animals that received the viral vector containing the gene for A53T α-syn and treated with vehicle (Neurobasal-A medium) presented dopaminergic cell loss in the SNpc and denervation in the STR. The treatment with secretome significantly reduced the levels of α-syn in the SNpc and protected the dopaminergic neurons (DAn) within the SNpc and STR. CONCLUSIONS: Our results are aligned with previous studies in both α-syn Caenorhabditis elegans models, as well as 6-OHDA rodent model, revealing that secretome exerted a neuroprotective effect. Moreover, these effects were associated with a modulation of microglial reactivity supporting an immunomodulatory role for the factors contained within the secretome. This further supports the development of new studies exploring the effects and the mechanism of action of secretome from MSC(M) against α-syn-induced neurotoxicity.

Revolutionizing Disease Modeling: The Emergence of Organoids in Cellular Systems.

Cellular models have created opportunities to explore the characteristics of human diseases through well-established protocols, while avoiding the ethical restrictions associated with post-mortem studies and the costs associated with researching animal models. The capability of cell reprogramming, such as induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) technology, solved the complications associated with human embryonic stem cells (hESC) usage. Moreover, iPSCs made significant contributions for human medicine, such as in diagnosis, therapeutic and regenerative medicine. The two-dimensional (2D) models allowed for monolayer cellular culture in vitro; however, they were surpassed by the three-dimensional (3D) cell culture system. The 3D cell culture provides higher cell-cell contact and a multi-layered cell culture, which more closely respects cellular morphology and polarity. It is more tightly able to resemble conditions in vivo and a closer approach to the architecture of human tissues, such as human organoids. Organoids are 3D cellular structures that mimic the architecture and function of native tissues. They are generated in vitro from stem cells or differentiated cells, such as epithelial or neural cells, and are used to study organ development, disease modeling, and drug discovery. Organoids have become a powerful tool for understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying human physiology, providing new insights into the pathogenesis of cancer, metabolic diseases, and brain disorders. Although organoid technology is up-and-coming, it also has some limitations that require improvements.

Cell-based therapeutic strategies for treatment of spinocerebellar ataxias: an update.

Spinocerebellar ataxias are heritable neurodegenerative diseases caused by a cytosine-adenine-guanine expansion, which encodes a long glutamine tract (polyglutamine) in the respective wild-type protein causing misfolding and protein aggregation. Clinical features of polyglutamine spinocerebellar ataxias include neuronal aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, decreased proteasomal activity, and autophagy impairment. Mutant polyglutamine protein aggregates accumulate within neurons and cause neural dysfunction and death in specific regions of the central nervous system. Spinocerebellar ataxias are mostly characterized by progressive ataxia, speech and swallowing problems, loss of coordination and gait deficits. Over the past decade, efforts have been made to ameliorate disease symptoms in patients, yet no cure is available. Previous studies have been proposing the use of stem cells as promising tools for central nervous system tissue regeneration. So far, pre-clinical trials have shown improvement in various models of neurodegenerative diseases following stem cell transplantation, including animal models of spinocerebellar ataxia types 1, 2, and 3. However, contrasting results can be found in the literature, depending on the animal model, cell type, and route of administration used. Nonetheless, clinical trials using cellular implants into degenerated brain regions have already been applied, with the expectation that these cells would be able to differentiate into the specific neuronal subtypes and re-populate these regions, reconstructing the affected neural network. Meanwhile, the question of how feasible it is to continue such treatments remains unanswered, with long-lasting effects being still unknown. To establish the value of these advanced therapeutic tools, it is important to predict the actions of the transplanted cells as well as to understand which cell type can induce the best outcomes for each disease. Further studies are needed to determine the best route of administration, without neglecting the possible risks of repetitive transplantation that these approaches so far appear to demand. Despite the challenges ahead of us, cell-transplantation therapies are reported to have transient but beneficial outcomes in spinocerebellar ataxias, which encourages efforts towards their improvement in the future.

Neurodifferentiation and Neuroprotection Potential of Mesenchymal Stromal Cell-Derived Secretome Produced in Different Dynamic Systems.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder and is characterized by the degeneration of the dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, leading to a loss of DA in the basal ganglia. The presence of aggregates of alpha-synuclein (α-synuclein) is seen as the main contributor to the pathogenesis and progression of PD. Evidence suggests that the secretome of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) could be a potential cell-free therapy for PD. However, to accelerate the integration of this therapy in the clinical setting, there is still the need to develop a protocol for the large-scale production of secretome under good manufacturing practices (GMP) guidelines. Bioreactors have the capacity to produce large quantities of secretomes in a scalable manner, surpassing the limitations of planar static culture systems. However, few studies focused on the influence of the culture system used to expand MSC, on the secretome composition. In this work, we studied the capacity of the secretome produced by bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSC) expanded in a spinner flask (SP) and in a Vertical-Wheel™ bioreactor (VWBR) system, to induce neurodifferentiation of human neural progenitor cells (hNPCs) and to prevent dopaminergic neuron degeneration caused by the overexpression of α-synuclein in one Caenorhabditis elegans model of PD. Results showed that secretomes from both systems were able to induce neurodifferentiation, though the secretome produced in the SP system had a greater effect. Additionally, in the conditions of our study, only the secretome produced in SP had a neuroprotective potential. Lastly, the secretomes had different profiles regarding the presence and/or specific intensity of different molecules, namely, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-4, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2), and 3 (MMP3), tumor necrosis factor-beta (TNF-ß), osteopontin, nerve growth factor beta (NGFß), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (GCSF), heparin-binding (HB) epithelial growth factor (EGF)-like growth factor (HB-EGF), and IL-13. Overall, our results suggest that the culture conditions might have influenced the secretory profiles of cultured cells and, consequently, the observed effects. Additional studies should further explore the effects that different culture systems have on the secretome potential of PD.

Cerebral Malaria Model Applying Human Brain Organoids.

Neural injuries in cerebral malaria patients are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Nevertheless, a comprehensive research approach to study this issue is lacking, so herein we propose an in vitro system to study human cerebral malaria using cellular approaches. Our first goal was to establish a cellular system to identify the molecular alterations in human brain vasculature cells that resemble the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in cerebral malaria (CM). Through transcriptomic analysis, we characterized specific gene expression profiles in human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC) activated by the Plasmodium falciparum parasites. We also suggest potential new genes related to parasitic activation. Then, we studied its impact at brain level after Plasmodium falciparum endothelial activation to gain a deeper understanding of the physiological mechanisms underlying CM. For that, the impact of HBMEC-P. falciparum-activated secretomes was evaluated in human brain organoids. Our results support the reliability of in vitro cellular models developed to mimic CM in several aspects. These systems can be of extreme importance to investigate the factors (parasitological and host) influencing CM, contributing to a molecular understanding of pathogenesis, brain injury, and dysfunction.

Secretomes derived from osteogenically differentiated jaw periosteal cells inhibit phenotypic and functional maturation of CD14+ monocyte-derived dendritic cells.

The jaw periosteal tissue is generally recognized as a suitable source for the isolation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). In previous studies we showed evidence that two- and three-dimensionally cultured jaw periosteum-derived MSCs (JPCs) are able to induce a more immature phenotype of dendritic cells (DCs). To further expand our knowledge of JPCs' immunoregulative function, we investigated the effects of JPC secretomes derived from undifferentiated (CO) or osteogenically differentiated cells (treated with or without dexamethasone: OB+/-D) on CD14+ monocyte-derived DCs (MoDCs). We detected a remarkably reduced formation of MoDC homotypic clusters under the influence of secretomes from osteogenically induced JPCs. Further, significantly decreased numbers of CD83+ cells, up-regulated CD209 and down-regulated CD80, CD86 and CD197 expression levels were detected on the surface of MoDCs. Whereas secretomes from JPCs osteogenically stimulated with dexamethasone significantly enhanced FITC-dextran uptake capacity of MoDCs, the increase by secretomes of JPCs treated without dexamethasone did not reach significance. The analysis of mixed lymphocyte reactions revealed that OB+/-D secretomes were able to significantly reduce the numbers of proliferating CD14- peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and of proliferating CD4+ T cells. The OB-D secretome significantly promoted the expansion of regulatory CD25+ T cells. Regarding gene expression of MoDCs, remarkably up-regulated mRNA expression of CD209, HLA-DRA, CSF3, IL10 and IL8 was detected when DCs were cultured in the presence of OB+/-D secretomes. At the same time, secretomes seemed to have an impact in the down-regulation of IFNγ and IL12B gene expression. At protein level, OB+/-D secretomes significantly up-regulated IL-10 and IDO (indoleamine-pyrrole 2,3-dioxygenase) levels whereas IL-12/IL-23p40 levels were down-regulated in supernatants of MoDCs when cultured under the presence of OB+/-D secretomes. Taken together, while secretomes from untreated JPCs had only little effects on the process of maturation of MoDCs, secretomes derived from osteogenically induced JPCs were able to inhibit the phenotypic and functional maturation of MoDCs.

Pre-Conditioning with IFN-γ and Hypoxia Enhances the Angiogenic Potential of iPSC-Derived MSC Secretome.

Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) derived mesenchymal stem cells (iMSCs) represent a promising source of progenitor cells for approaches in the field of bone regeneration. Bone formation is a multi-step process in which osteogenesis and angiogenesis are both involved. Many reports show that the secretome of mesenchymal stromal stem cells (MSCs) influences the microenvironment upon injury, promoting cytoprotection, angiogenesis, and tissue repair of the damaged area. However, the effects of iPSC-derived MSCs secretome on angiogenesis have seldom been investigated. In the present study, the angiogenic properties of IFN-γ pre-conditioned iMSC secretomes were analyzed. We detected a higher expression of the pro-angiogenic genes and proteins of iMSCs and their secretome under IFN-γ and hypoxic stimulation (IFN-H). Tube formation and wound healing assays revealed a higher angiogenic potential of HUVECs in the presence of IFN-γ conditioned iMSC secretome. Sprouting assays demonstrated that within Coll/HA scaffolds, HUVECs spheroids formed significantly more and longer sprouts in the presence of IFN-γ conditioned iMSC secretome. Through gene expression analyses, pro-angiogenic genes (FLT-1, KDR, MET, TIMP-1, HIF-1α, IL-8, and VCAM-1) in HUVECs showed a significant up-regulation and down-regulation of two anti-angiogenic genes (TIMP-4 and IGFBP-1) compared to the data obtained in the other groups. Our results demonstrate that the iMSC secretome, pre-conditioned under inflammatory and hypoxic conditions, induced the highest angiogenic properties of HUVECs. We conclude that pre-activated iMSCs enhance their efficacy and represent a suitable cell source for collagen/hydroxyapatite with angiogenic properties.

Preclinical Assessment of Mesenchymal-Stem-Cell-Based Therapies in Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3.

The low regeneration potential of the central nervous system (CNS) represents a challenge for the development of new therapeutic strategies for neurodegenerative diseases, including spinocerebellar ataxias. Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3)-or Machado-Joseph disease (MJD)-is the most common dominant ataxia, being mainly characterized by motor deficits; however, SCA3/MJD has a complex and heterogeneous pathophysiology, involving many CNS brain regions, contributing to the lack of effective therapies. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been proposed as a potential therapeutic tool for CNS disorders. Beyond their differentiation potential, MSCs secrete a broad range of neuroregulatory factors that can promote relevant neuroprotective and immunomodulatory actions in different pathophysiological contexts. The objective of this work was to study the effects of (1) human MSC transplantation and (2) human MSC secretome (CM) administration on disease progression in vivo, using the CMVMJD135 mouse model of SCA3/MJD. Our results showed that a single CM administration was more beneficial than MSC transplantation-particularly in the cerebellum and basal ganglia-while no motor improvement was observed when these cell-based therapeutic approaches were applied in the spinal cord. However, the effects observed were mild and transient, suggesting that continuous or repeated administration would be needed, which should be further tested.

A combinatorial approach for spinal cord injury repair using multifunctional collagen-based matrices: development, characterization and impact on cell adhesion and axonal growth.

Spinal cord injury is a devastating condition of the central nervous system, in which traditional treatments are largely ineffective due to the complex nature of the injured tissue. Therefore, biomaterial-based systems have been developed as possible alternative strategies to repair the damaged tissue. In the present study, we aimed to design bioactive agent loaded scaffolds composed of two layers with distinct physical properties to improve tissue regeneration. An electrospun layer with aligned nanofibers was made of collagen (Col) Type-I, poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) and laminin to promote cell attachment of mesenchymal-like stem cells towards the direction of fibers, while a Col-based second layer was fabricated by plastic compression to act as a releasing system for NT-3 and chondroitinase ABC, so that axonal growth could be stimulated. Results showed that a source of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-like cells, adipose tissue-derived stem cells cultured on the fibrous layer of the matrices were able to adhere and proliferate, where the aligned fibers promoted the cell growth in an organized way. Furthermore, the bilayered matrices also promoted dorsal root ganglion neurite outgrowth. The bilayered matrice with Col/PLGA + laminin top layer appears to promote higher neurite growth. Collectively, the designed constructs show promising structural properties and biological performance for being employed as a scaffold for engineering the spinal cord tissue.

Exploiting the impact of the secretome of MSCs isolated from different tissue sources on neuronal differentiation and axonal growth.

Cell transplantation using Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) secretome have recently been presented as a possible free-based therapy for CNS related disorders. MSC secretome is rich in several bio-factors that act synergically towards the repair of damaged tissues, thus making it an ideal candidate for regenerative applications. Great effort is currently being made to map the molecules that compose the MSC secretome. Previous proteomic characterization of the secretome (in the form of conditioned media - CM) of MSCs derived from adipose tissue (ASC), bone-marrow (BMSC) and umbilical cord (HUCPVC) was performed by our group, where proteins relevant for neuroprotection, neurogenic, neurodifferentiation, axon guidance and growth functions were identified. Moreover, we have found significant differences among the expression of several molecules, which may indicate that their therapeutic outcome might be distinct. Having this in mind, in the present study, the neuroregulatory potential of ASC, BMSC and HUCPVC CM in promoting neurodifferentiation and axonal outgrowth was tested in vitro, using human telencephalon neuroprogenitor cells and dorsal root ganglion explants, respectively. The CM from the three MSC populations induced neuronal differentiation from human neural progenitor cells, as well as neurite outgrowth from dorsal root ganglion explants. Moreover, all the MSC populations promoted the same extent of neurodifferentiation, while ASC CM demonstrated higher potential in promoting axonal growth.

Trait determinants of impulsive behavior: a comprehensive analysis of 188 rats.

Impulsivity is a naturally occurring behavior that, when accentuated, can be found in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders. The expression of trait impulsivity has been shown to change with a variety of factors, such as age and sex, but the existing literature does not reflect widespread consensus regarding the influence of modulating effects. We designed the present study to investigate, in a cohort of significant size (188 rats), the impact of four specific parameters, namely sex, age, strain and phase of estrous cycle, using the variable delay-to-signal (VDS) task. This cohort included (i) control animals from previous experiments; (ii) animals specifically raised for this study; and (iii) animals previously used for breeding purposes. Aging was associated with a general decrease in action impulsivity and an increase in delay tolerance. Females generally performed more impulsive actions than males but no differences were observed regarding delay intolerance. In terms of estrous cycle, no differences in impulsive behavior were observed and regarding strain, Wistar Han animals were, in general, more impulsive than Sprague-Dawley. In addition to further confirming, in a substantial study cohort, the decrease in impulsivity with age, we have demonstrated that both the strain and sex influences modulate different aspects of impulsive behavior manifestations.

In vitro evaluation of cell-seeded chitosan films for peripheral nerve tissue engineering.

Natural biomaterials have attracted an increasing interest in the field of tissue-engineered nerve grafts, representing a possible alternative to autologous nerve transplantation. With the prospect of developing a novel entubulation strategy for transected nerves with cell-seeded chitosan films, we examined the biocompatibility of such films in vitro. Different types of rat Schwann cells (SCs)--immortalized, neonatal, and adult-of the chitosan substrate. Both cell types were viable on the biomaterial and showed different metabolic activities and proliferation behavior, indicating cell-type-specific cell-biomaterial interaction. Moreover, the cell types also displayed their typical morphology. In cocultures adult SCs used the BMSCs as a feeder layer and no negative interactions between both cell types were detected. Further, the chitosan films allow neurite outgrowth from dissociated sensory neurons, which is additionally supported on film preseeded with SC-BMSC cocultures. The presented chitosan films therefore demonstrate high potential for their use in tissue-engineered nerve grafts.

Adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of a mouse mesenchymal stem cell line (BMC9) seeded on novel melt-based chitosan/polyester 3D porous scaffolds.

The aim of the present work was to study the biological behavior of a mouse mesenchymal stem cell line when seeded and cultured under osteogenic conditions onto novel processed melt-based chitosan scaffolds. Scaffolds were produced by compression molding, followed by salt leaching. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations and microCT analysis showed the pore sizes ranging between 250 and 500 microm and the interconnectivity of the porous structure. The chitosan-poly(butylenes succinate) scaffolds presented high mechanical properties, similar to the ones of trabecular bone (E1% approximately 75 MPa). Cytotoxicity assays were carried out using standard tests (accordingly to ISO/EN 10993 part 5 guidelines), namely, MTS test with a 24 h extraction period, revealing that L929 cells had similar metabolic activities to that obtained for the negative control. Cell culture studies were conducted using a mouse mesenchymal stem cell line (BMC9). Cells were seeded onto the scaffold and allowed to proliferate for 3 weeks under osteogenic conditions. SEM observations demonstrated that cells were able to proliferate and massively colonize the scaffolds structure. The cell viability assay MTS demonstrated that BMC9 cells were viable after 3 weeks of culture. The cells clearly evidenced a positive differentiation toward the osteogenic lineage, as confirmed by the high ALP activity levels. Moreover, energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis revealed the presence of Ca and P in the elaborated extracellular matrix (ECM). These combined results indicate that the novel melt-based chitosan/polyester scaffolds support the adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of the mouse MSCs and shows adequate physicochemical and biological properties for being used as scaffolds in bone tissue engineering-related strategies.