A Guinea Pig Model Suggests That Objective Assessment of Acoustic Hearing Preservation in Human Ears With Cochlear Implants Is Confounded by Shifts in the Spatial Origin of Acoustically Evoked Potential Measurements Along the Cochlear Length.

OBJECTIVES: Our recent empirical findings have shown that the auditory nerve compound action potential (CAP) evoked by a low-level tone burst originates from a narrow cochlear region tuned to the tone burst frequency. At moderate to high sound levels, the origins shift to the most sensitive audiometric regions rather than the extended high-frequency regions of the cochlear base. This means that measurements evoked from extended high-frequency sound stimuli can shift toward the apex with increasing level. Here we translate this study to understand the spatial origin of acoustically evoked responses from ears that receive cochlear implants, an emerging area of research and clinical practice that is not completely understood. An essential step is to first understand the influence of the cochlear implant in otherwise naive ears. Our objective was to understand how function of the high-frequency cochlear base, which can be excited by the intense low-frequency sounds that are frequently used for objective intra- and postoperative monitoring, can be influenced by the presence of the cochlear implant. DESIGN: We acoustically evoked responses and made measurements with an electrode placed near the guinea pig round window. The cochlear implant was not utilized for either electrical stimulation or recording purposes. With the cochlear implant in situ, CAPs were acoustically evoked from 2 to 16 kHz tone bursts of various levels while utilizing the slow perfusion of a kainic acid solution from the cochlear apex to the cochlear aqueduct in the base, which sequentially reduced neural responses from finely spaced cochlear frequency regions. This cochlear perfusion technique reveals the spatial origin of evoked potential measurements and provides insight on what influence the presence of an implant has on acoustical hearing. RESULTS: Threshold measurements at 3 to 11 kHz were elevated by implantation. In an individual ear, thresholds were elevated and lowered as cochlear implant was respectively inserted and removed, indicative of "conductive hearing loss" induced by the implant. The maximum threshold elevation occurred at most sensitive region of the naive guinea pig ear (33.66 dB at 8 kHz), making 11 kHz the most sensitive region to acoustic sounds for guinea pig ears with cochlear implants. Conversely, the acute implantation did not affect the low-frequency, 500 Hz thresholds and suprathreshold function, as shown by the auditory nerve overlapped waveform. As the sound pressure level of the tone bursts increased, mean data show that the spatial origin of CAPs along the cochlear length shifted toward the most sensitive cochlear region of implanted ears, not the extended high-frequency cochlear regions. However, data from individual ears showed that after implantation, measurements from moderate to high sound pressure levels originate in places that are unique to each ear. CONCLUSIONS: Alterations to function of the cochlear base from the in situ cochlear implant may influence objective measurements of implanted ears that are frequently made with intense low-frequency sound stimuli. Our results from guinea pigs advance the interpretation of measurements used to understand how and when residual acoustic hearing is lost in human ears receiving a cochlear implant.

Dexamethasone and Dexamethasone Phosphate Entry into Perilymph Compared for Middle Ear Applications in Guinea Pigs.

Dexamethasone phosphate is widely used for intratympanic therapy in humans. We assessed the pharmacokinetics of dexamethasone entry into perilymph when administered as a dexamethasone phosphate solution or as a micronized dexamethasone suspension, with and without inclusion of poloxamer gel in the medium. After a 1-h application to guinea pigs, 10 independent samples of perilymph were collected from the lateral semicircular canal of each animal, allowing entry at the round window and stapes to be independently assessed. Both forms of dexamethasone entered the perilymph predominantly at the round window (73%), with a lower proportion entering at the stapes (22%). When normalized by applied concentration, dexamethasone phosphate was found to enter perilymph far more slowly than dexamethasone, in accordance with its calculated lipid solubility and polar surface area properties. Dexamethasone phosphate therefore has a problematic combination of kinetic properties when used for local therapy of the ear. It is relatively impermeable and enters perilymph only slowly from the middle ear. It is then metabolized in the ear to dexamethasone, which is more permeable through tissue boundaries and is rapidly lost from perilymph. Understanding the influence of molecular properties on the distribution of drugs in perilymph provides a new level of understanding which may help optimize drug therapies of the ear.

Intracochlear Drug Injections through the Round Window Membrane: Measures to Improve Drug Retention.

The goal of this study was to develop an appropriate methodology to apply drugs quantitatively to the perilymph of the ear. Intratympanic applications of drugs to the inner ear often result in variable drug levels in the perilymph and can only be used for molecules that readily permeate the round window (RW) membrane. Direct intracochlear and intralabyrinthine application procedures for drugs, genes or cell-based therapies bypass the tight boundaries at the RW, oval window, otic capsule and the blood-labyrinth barrier. However, perforations can release inner ear pressure, allowing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to enter through the cochlear aqueduct, displacing the injected drug solution into the middle ear. Two markers, fluorescein or fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dextran, were used to quantify how much of an injected substance was retained in the cochlear perilymph following an intracochlear injection. We evaluated whether procedures to mitigate fluid leaks improved marker retention in perilymph. Almost all procedures to reduce volume efflux, including the use of gel for internal sealing and glue for external sealing of the injection site, resulted in improved retention of the marker in perilymph. Adhesive on the RW membrane effectively prevented leaks but also influenced fluid exchange between CSF and perilymph. We conclude that drugs can be delivered to the ear in a consistent, quantitative manner using intracochlear injections if care is taken to control the fluid leaks that result from cochlear perforation.

Gentamicin concentration gradients in scala tympani perilymph following systemic applications.

It has been shown in prior studies that round window membrane (RWM) application of gentamicin produced a robust basal-apical concentration gradient in the perilymph of scala tympani (ST) with peak concentrations in the basal turn of ST. These gradients potentially contribute to the clinical efficacy and safety of intratympanic gentamicin applications for the treatment of Ménière's disease. The present study aimed to establish the distribution of gentamicin along ST perilymph after systemic applications. Gentamicin sulfate was applied intravenously in the amounts of 100, 300 and 600 mg/kg body weight (BW) over a period of 3 h or as a 300 mg/kg BW subcutaneous bolus injection. At 3 and 5 h after the start of the application perilymph of ST was aspirated from the cochlea apex of the right and left cochlea, respectively, and 10 sequential 1-µl perilymph samples from the apex of each cochlea were quantitatively analyzed using a fluorescence polarization immunoassay. In contrast to local RWM delivery, systemic application of gentamicin resulted in the highest perilymph levels in the apex of the cochlea with decreasing concentrations towards the basal regions of ST. The absolute gentamicin concentrations increased with the amount of drug applied and time before sampling. While it is likely that the basal-apical gradient measured after local drug applications to the round window niche is the result of the direct uptake of drugs into the perilymph of the ST, distribution by diffusion and a very low perilymph flow towards the cochlear apex, computer simulations suggested that the apical-basal gradient observed with these systemic applications can be explained by higher entry rates of gentamicin in the apex compared to the basal turns of the cochlea. It is also possible that gentamicin enters perilymph indirectly from the blood via the endolymph. In this case the faster kinetics in apical turns could be due to the smaller cross-sectional area of ST relative to endolymph in the apical turns.

Large endolymphatic potentials from low-frequency and infrasonic tones in the guinea pig.

Responses of the ear to low-frequency and infrasonic sounds have not been extensively studied. Understanding how the ear responds to low frequencies is increasingly important as environmental infrasounds are becoming more pervasive from sources such as wind turbines. This study shows endolymphatic potentials in the third cochlear turn from acoustic infrasound (5 Hz) are larger than from tones in the audible range (e.g., 50 and 500 Hz), in some cases with peak-to-peak amplitude greater than 20 mV. These large potentials were suppressed by higher-frequency tones and were rapidly abolished by perilymphatic injection of KCl at the cochlear apex, demonstrating their third-turn origins. Endolymphatic iso-potentials from 5 to 500 Hz were enhanced relative to perilymphatic potentials as frequency was lowered. Probe and infrasonic bias tones were used to study the origin of the enhanced potentials. Potentials were best explained as a saturating response summed with a sinusoidal voltage (Vo), that was phase delayed by an average of 60° relative to the biasing effects of the infrasound. Vo is thought to arise indirectly from hair cell activity, such as from strial potential changes caused by sustained current changes through the hair cells in each half cycle of the infrasound.

Distribution of dexamethasone and preservation of inner ear function following intratympanic delivery of a gel-based formulation.

Intratympanic (IT) delivery of drugs to the ear is increasingly used for both clinical and research purposes. One limitation of IT delivery is that drugs are rapidly lost from the middle ear by a number of processes, so that prolonged delivery of drug is technically difficult. In the present study, the delivery characteristics of a poloxamer hydrogel formulation containing dexamethasone (dex) were evaluated. The gel is liquid at room temperature, allowing IT injection, but transitions to a gel at body temperature, providing a prolonged residence time in the middle ear. A 50-µl volume of control or dex-containing gel (dex-gel) was injected through the tympanic membrane of guinea pigs. Cochlear function was assessed with cochlear action potential and acoustic emission thresholds measured immediately, 6 or 24 h after IT gel injection. After 6- or 24-hour treatment with dex-gel, perilymph drug gradients along the cochlea were assessed by taking samples sequentially from the apex, and endolymph was sampled from the basal turn. Control gel injections caused small changes in sound field calibrations and functional measures for low-frequency stimuli, consistent with an induced conductive loss. Within 24 h, responses returned to normal. Twenty-four hours after dex-gel injection, low-frequency changes remained as the dex-gel was retained better in the middle ear, but there was no indication of high-frequency loss. While perilymph sample data showed that dex gradients were substantially lower than after single injections of dex solution, quantitative analysis of this result suggests that some dex may have entered the perilymph through the thin bone in the apical region of the cochlea. Endolymph levels of dex remained lower than those in the perilymph. This study confirms that a poloxamer hydrogel-based dex formulation provides an effective method for a prolonged delivery, providing a more uniform distribution of drug in the inner ear.

Reducing Auditory Nerve Excitability by Acute Antagonism of Ca2+-Permeable AMPA Receptors.

Hearing depends on glutamatergic synaptic transmission mediated by α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors (AMPARs). AMPARs are tetramers, where inclusion of the GluA2 subunit reduces overall channel conductance and Ca2+ permeability. Cochlear afferent synapses between inner hair cells (IHCs) and auditory nerve fibers (ANFs) contain the AMPAR subunits GluA2, 3, and 4. However, the tetrameric complement of cochlear AMPAR subunits is not known. It was recently shown in mice that chronic intracochlear delivery of IEM-1460, an antagonist selective for GluA2-lacking AMPARs [also known as Ca2+-permeable AMPARs (CP-AMPARs)], before, during, and after acoustic overexposure prevented both the trauma to ANF synapses and the ensuing reduction of cochlear nerve activity in response to sound. Surprisingly, baseline measurements of cochlear function before exposure were unaffected by chronic intracochlear delivery of IEM-1460. This suggested that cochlear afferent synapses contain GluA2-lacking CP-AMPARs alongside GluA2-containing Ca2+-impermeable AMPA receptors (CI-AMPARs), and that the former can be antagonized for protection while the latter remain conductive. Here, we investigated hearing function in the guinea pig during acute local or systemic delivery of CP-AMPAR antagonists. Acute intracochlear delivery of IEM-1460 or systemic delivery of IEM-1460 or IEM-1925 reduced the amplitude of the ANF compound action potential (CAP) significantly, for all tone levels and frequencies, by > 50% without affecting CAP thresholds or distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAE). Following systemic dosing, IEM-1460 levels in cochlear perilymph were ~ 30% of blood levels, on average, consistent with pharmacokinetic properties predicting permeation of the compounds into the brain and ear. Both compounds were metabolically stable with half-lives >5 h in vitro, and elimination half-lives in vivo of 118 min (IEM-1460) and 68 min (IEM-1925). Heart rate monitoring and off-target binding assays suggest an enhanced safety profile for IEM-1925 over IEM-1460. Compound potency on CAP reduction (IC50 ~ 73 µM IEM-1460) was consistent with a mixture of GluA2-lacking and GluA2-containing AMPARs. These data strongly imply that cochlear afferent synapses of the guinea pig contain GluA2-lacking CP-AMPARs. We propose these CP-AMPARs may be acutely antagonized with systemic dosing, to protect from glutamate excitotoxicity, while transmission at GluA2-containing AMPARs persists to mediate hearing during the protection.

CACHD1-deficient mice exhibit hearing and balance deficits associated with a disruption of calcium homeostasis in the inner ear.

CACHD1 recently was shown to be an α2δ-like subunit that can modulate the activity of some types of voltage-gated calcium channels, including the low-voltage activated, T-type CaV3 channels. CACHD1 is widely expressed in the central nervous system but its biological functions and relationship to disease states are unknown. Here, we report that mice with deleterious Cachd1 mutations are hearing impaired and have balance defects, demonstrating that CACHD1 is functionally important in the peripheral auditory and vestibular organs of the inner ear. The vestibular dysfunction of Cachd1 mutant mice, exhibited by leaning and head tilting behaviors, is related to a deficiency of calcium carbonate crystals (otoconia) in the saccule and utricle. The auditory dysfunction, shown by ABR threshold elevations and reduced DPOAEs, is associated with reduced endocochlear potentials and increased endolymph calcium concentrations. Paint-fills of mutant inner ears from prenatal and newborn mice revealed dilation of the membranous labyrinth caused by an enlarged volume of endolymph. These pathologies all can be related to a disturbance of calcium homeostasis in the endolymph of the inner ear, presumably caused by the loss of CACHD1 regulatory effects on voltage-gated calcium channel activity. Cachd1 expression in the cochlea appears stronger in late embryonic stages than in adults, suggesting an early role in establishing endolymph calcium concentrations. Our findings provide new insights into CACHD1 function and suggest the involvement of voltage-gated calcium channels in endolymph homeostasis, essential for normal auditory and vestibular function.

Improved Speech Intelligibility in Subjects With Stable Sensorineural Hearing Loss Following Intratympanic Dosing of FX-322 in a Phase 1b Study.

OBJECTIVES: There are no approved pharmacologic therapies for chronic sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). The combination of CHIR99021+valproic acid (CV, FX-322) has been shown to regenerate mammalian cochlear hair cells ex vivo. The objectives were to characterize the cochlear pharmacokinetic profile of CV in guinea pigs, then measure FX-322 in human perilymph samples, and finally assess safety and audiometric effects of FX-322 in humans with chronic SNHL. STUDY DESIGNS: Middle ear residence, cochlear distribution, and elimination profiles of FX-322 were assessed in guinea pigs. Human perilymph sampling following intratympanic FX-322 dosing was performed in an open-label study in cochlear implant subjects. Unilateral intratympanic FX-322 was assessed in a Phase 1b prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial. SETTING: Three private otolaryngology practices in the US. PATIENTS: Individuals diagnosed with mild to moderately severe chronic SNHL (≤70 dB standard pure-tone average) in one or both ears that was stable for ≥6 months, medical histories consistent with noise-induced or idiopathic sudden SNHL, and no significant vestibular symptoms. INTERVENTIONS: Intratympanic FX-322. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Pharmacokinetics of FX-322 in perilymph and safety and audiometric effects. RESULTS: After intratympanic delivery in guinea pigs and humans, FX-322 levels in the cochlear extended high-frequency region were observed and projected to be pharmacologically active in humans. A single dose of FX-322 in SNHL subjects was well tolerated with mild, transient treatment-related adverse events (n = 15 FX-322 vs 8 placebo). Of the six patients treated with FX-322 who had baseline word recognition in quiet scores below 90%, four showed clinically meaningful improvements (absolute word recognition improved 18-42%, exceeding the 95% confidence interval determined by previously published criteria). No significant changes in placebo-injected ears were observed. At the group level, FX-322 subjects outperformed placebo group in word recognition in quiet when averaged across all time points, with a mean improvement from baseline of 18.9% (p = 0.029). For words in noise, the treated group showed a mean 1.3 dB signal-to-noise ratio improvement (p = 0.012) relative to their baseline scores while placebo-treated subjects did not (-0.21 dB, p = 0.71). CONCLUSIONS: Delivery of FX-322 to the extended high-frequency region of the cochlea is well tolerated and enhances speech recognition performance in multiple subjects with stable chronic hearing loss.

Effect of artificial endolymph injection into the cochlear duct on perilymph potassium.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between endolymphatic hydrops and perilymphatic potassium. METHODS: 20 pigmented guinea pigs were used: 10 for scala vestibuli study and 10 for scala tympani study. Acute endolymphatic hydrops was produced by microinjection of an artificial endolymph into the scala media. Injections were performed in the second turn at rates up to 500 nl/min for a period of 10 min. The injection volume was up to 5 microl. Endocochlear potential (EP) was monitored during injections. Simultaneous with the injections, the potassium concentrations in scala vestibuli (K(SV)) or tympani (K(ST)) perilymph were measured with ion-sensitive double-barreled microelectrodes sealed into in the scalae in the 3rd turn with cyanoacrylate glue. RESULTS: For endolymphatic injections of

Steroid Nomenclature in Inner Ear Therapy.

: Local glucocorticosteroid ("steroid") therapy is widely used to treat the inner ears of patients with Menière's disease, idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss and in combination with cochlear implants. Applied steroids have included dexamethasone, methylprednisolone, and triamcinolone. In reality, however, this is often not true and the steroid forms commonly applied are dexamethasone-phosphate, methylprednisolone-hemisuccinate, or triamcinolone-acetonide. In each case, the additional component is not a counter-ion but is covalently bound to the molecule to increase aqueous solubility or potency. These drug forms are approved for intravenous or intramuscular delivery and are used "off-label" in the ear. When given systemically, the molecular form of the drug is of minor importance as the drugs are rapidly metabolized. In contrast, when administered intratympanically, the exact form of the drug has a major influence on entry into perilymph and elimination from perilymph, which in turn influences distribution along the cochlear scalae. Dexamethasone-phosphate has completely different molecular properties to dexamethasone and has different pharmacokinetic properties entering and leaving perilymph. Molecular properties and perilymph pharmacokinetics also differ markedly for triamcinolone and triamcinolone-acetonide. Methylprednisolone-hemisuccinate has completely different molecular properties to methylprednisolone. In the ear, different steroid forms cannot therefore be regarded as equivalent in terms of pharmacokinetics or efficacy. This presents a terminology problem, where in many cases the drug stated in publications may not be the form actually administered. The lack of precision in nomenclature is a serious problem for the inner ear drug delivery field and needs to be recognized.

Principles of local drug delivery to the inner ear.

As more and more substances have been shown in preclinical studies to be capable of preventing damage to the inner ear from exposure to noise, ototoxic drugs, ischemia, infection, inflammation, mechanical trauma and other insults, it is becoming very important to develop feasible and safe methods for the targeted delivery of drugs to specific regions in the inner ear. Recently developed methods for sampling perilymph from the cochlea have overcome major technical problems that have distorted previous pharmacokinetic studies of the ear. These measurements show that drug distribution in perilymph is dominated by passive diffusion, resulting in large gradients along the cochlea when drugs are applied intratympanically. Therefore, in order to direct drugs to specific regions of the ear, a variety of delivery strategies are required. To target drugs to the basal cochlear turn and vestibular system while minimizing exposure of the apical cochlear turns, single one-shot intratympanic applications are effective. To increase the amount of drug reaching the apical cochlear turns, repeated intratympanic injections or controlled-release drug delivery systems, such as biodegradable biopolymers or catheters and pumps, are more effective. However, if the applied substance does not easily pass through the round window membrane, or if a more widespread distribution of drug in the ear is required, then intralabyrinthine injections of the substance may be required. Intralabyrinthine injection procedures, which are currently in development in animals, have not yet been proven safe enough for human use.

Estimating the operating point of the cochlear transducer using low-frequency biased distortion products.

Distortion products in the cochlear microphonic (CM) and in the ear canal in the form of distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) are generated by nonlinear transduction in the cochlea and are related to the resting position of the organ of Corti (OC). A 4.8 Hz acoustic bias tone was used to displace the OC, while the relative amplitude and phase of distortion products evoked by a single tone [most often 500 Hz, 90 dB SPL (sound pressure level)] or two simultaneously presented tones (most often 4 kHz and 4.8 kHz, 80 dB SPL) were monitored. Electrical responses recorded from the round window, scala tympani and scala media of the basal turn, and acoustic emissions in the ear canal were simultaneously measured and compared during the bias. Bias-induced changes in the distortion products were similar to those predicted from computer models of a saturating transducer with a first-order Boltzmann distribution. Our results suggest that biased DPOAEs can be used to non-invasively estimate the OC displacement, producing a measurement equivalent to the transducer operating point obtained via Boltzmann analysis of the basal turn CM. Low-frequency biased DPOAEs might provide a diagnostic tool to objectively diagnose abnormal displacements of the OC, as might occur with endolymphatic hydrops.

Dexamethasone concentration gradients along scala tympani after application to the round window membrane.

HYPOTHESIS: Local application of dexamethasone-21-dihydrogen-phosphate (Dex-P) to the round window (RW) membrane of guinea pigs produces a substantial basal-apical concentration gradient in scala tympani (ST) perilymph. BACKGROUND: In recent years, intratympanically applied glucocorticoids are increasingly being used for the treatment of inner ear disease. Although measurements of intracochlear concentrations after RW application exist, there is limited information on the distribution of these drugs in the inner ear fluids. It has been predicted from computer simulations that substantial concentration gradients will occur after RW application, with lower concentrations expected in apical turns. Concentration gradients of other substances along the cochlea have recently been confirmed using a sequential apical sampling method to obtain perilymph. METHODS: Dexamethasone-21-dihydrogen-phosphate (10 mg/ml) was administered to the RW membrane of guinea pigs (n = 9) in vivo for 2 to 3 hours. Perilymph was then collected using a protocol in which 10 samples, each of approximately 1 mul, were taken sequentially from the cochlear apex into capillary tubes. Dexamethasone-21-dihydrogen-phosphate concentration of the samples was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Interpretation of sample data using a finite element model allowed the longitudinal gradients of Dex-P in ST to be quantified. RESULTS: The Dex-P content of the first sample in each experiment (dominated by perilymph from apical regions) was substantially lower than that of the third and fourth sample (dominated by basal turn perilymph). These findings qualitatively demonstrated the existence of a concentration gradient along ST. After detailed analysis of the measured sample concentrations using an established finite element computer model, the mean basal-apical concentration gradient was estimated to be 17,000. Both absolute concentrations of Dex-P in ST and the basal-apical gradients were found to vary substantially. CONCLUSION: The existence of substantial basal-apical concentration gradients of Dex-P in ST perilymph were demonstrated experimentally. If the variability in peak concentration and gradient is also present under clinical conditions, this may contribute to the heterogeneity of outcome that is observed after intratympanic application of glucocorticoids for various inner ear diseases.

Pharmacokinetic principles in the inner ear: Influence of drug properties on intratympanic applications.

Local drug delivery to the ear has gained wide clinical acceptance, with the choice of drug and application protocol in humans largely empirically-derived. Here, we review the pharmacokinetics underlying local therapy of the ear using the drugs commonly used in clinical practice as examples. Based on molecular properties and perilymph measurements interpreted through computer simulations we now better understand the principles underlying entry and distribution of these and other drugs in the ear. From our analysis, we have determined that dexamethasone-phosphate, a pro-drug widely-used clinically, has molecular and pharmacokinetic properties that make it ill-suited for use as a local therapy for hearing disorders. This polar form of dexamethasone, used as a more soluble agent in intravenous preparations, passes less readily through lipid membranes, such as those of the epithelia restricting entry at the round window membrane and stapes. Once within the inner ear, dexamethasone-phosphate is cleaved to the active form, dexamethasone, which is less polar, passes more readily through lipid membranes of the blood-perilymph barrier and is rapidly eliminated from perilymph without distributing to apical cochlear regions. Dexamethasone-phosphate therefore provides only a brief exposure of the basal regions of the cochlea to active drug. Other steroids, such as triamcinolone-acetonide, exhibit pharmacokinetic properties more appropriate to the ear and merit more detailed consideration.

Communication pathways to and from the inner ear and their contributions to drug delivery.

The environment of the inner ear is highly regulated in a manner that some solutes are permitted to enter while others are excluded or transported out. Drug therapies targeting the sensory and supporting cells of the auditory and vestibular systems require the agent to gain entry to the fluid spaces of the inner ear, perilymph or endolymph, which surround the sensory organs. Access to the inner ear fluids from the vasculature is limited by the blood-labyrinth barriers, which include the blood-perilymph and blood-strial barriers. Intratympanic applications provide an alternative approach in which drugs are applied locally. Drug from the applied solution enters perilymph through the round window membrane, through the stapes, and under some circumstances, through thin bone in the otic capsule. The amount of drug applied to the middle ear is always substantially more than the amount entering perilymph. As a result, significant amounts of the applied drug can pass to the digestive system, to the vasculature, and to the brain. Drugs in perilymph pass to the vasculature and to cerebrospinal fluid via the cochlear aqueduct. Conversely, drugs applied to cerebrospinal fluid, including those given intrathecally, can enter perilymph through the cochlear aqueduct. Other possible routes in or out of the ear include passage by neuronal pathways, passage via endolymph and the endolymphatic sac, and possibly via lymphatic pathways. A better understanding of the pathways for drug movements in and out of the ear will enable better intervention strategies.

Hearing Changes After Intratympanic Steroids for Secondary (Salvage) Therapy of Sudden Hearing Loss: A Meta-Analysis Using Mathematical Simulations of Drug Delivery Protocols.

OBJECTIVE: The use of glucocorticoids for secondary (salvage/rescue) therapy of idiopathic sudden hearing loss (ISSHL), including controlled and uncontrolled studies with intratympanic injections or continuous, catheter mediated applications, were evaluated by means of a meta-analysis in an attempt to define optimal local drug delivery protocols for ISSHL. STUDY DESIGN: A total of 30 studies with 33 treatment groups between January 2000 and June 2014 were selected based on sufficiently detailed description of application protocols. Cochlear drug levels were calculated by a validated computer model of drug dispersion in the inner ear fluids based on the concentration and volume of glucocorticoids applied, the time drug remained in the middle ear, and on the specific timing of injections. Various factors were compared with hearing outcome, including baseline data, individual parameters of the application protocols, calculated peak concentration (Cmax), and total dose (area under the curve, AUC). RESULTS: There was no dependence of hearing outcome on individual parameters of the application protocol, Cmax or AUC. Hearing gain and final hearing thresholds were independent of treatment delay. CONCLUSION: Based on the available data from uncontrolled and controlled randomized and non-randomized studies no clear recommendation can be made so far for a specific application protocol for either primary or secondary (salvage) intratympanic steroid treatment in patients with ISSHL. For meta-analyses, change in pure tone average (PTA) may not be an adequate outcome parameter to assess effectiveness of the intervention especially with inhomogeneity of patient populations. Final PTA might provide a better outcome parameter.

Permeation Enhancers for Intratympanically-applied Drugs Studied Using Fluorescent Dexamethasone as a Marker.

HYPOTHESIS: Entry of locally applied drugs into the inner ear can be enhanced by chemical manipulations. BACKGROUND: Perilymph drug concentrations achieved by intratympanic applications are well below the applied concentration due to limited entry through the round window (RW) membrane and stapes. Chemical manipulations to increase entry permeability could increase the effectiveness of drug therapy with local applications. METHODS: Dexamethasone-fluorescein (F-dex) was used as an entry marker. F-dex was applied to the RW niche of guinea pigs as a 20 µL bolus of 1 mM solution. After a 1 hour application, 10 samples of perilymph were collected sequentially from the lateral semicircular canal, allowing F-dex distribution throughout the perilymph to be quantified. Entry was also measured with the applied solution additionally containing dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), saponin, caprate, benzyl alcohol (BA) or poloxamer 407 (P407). Combinations of saponin or BA with P407 were also compared. RESULTS: In control experiments, F-dex entered the inner ear slowly at both the RW and stapes. The total F-dex recovered in all 10 samples from each animal averaged 2.1 pMoles for controls, 1.71 pMoles for 17% P407, 3.70 pMoles for caprate, 8.04 pMoles for DMSO, 16.32 pMoles for NMP, 31.0 pMoles for saponin, and 67.3 pMoles for 4% BA. Entry with DMSO, NMP, saponin and 4% BA were all significantly higher than the controls (one-way ANOVA). CONCLUSION: These studies confirm that entry of drugs into the ear can be markedly enhanced with the use of chemical permeation-enhancing agents.

Effect of infrasound on cochlear damage from exposure to a 4 kHz octave band of noise.

Infrasound (i.e., <20 Hz for humans; <100 Hz for chinchillas) is not audible, but exposure to high-levels of infrasound will produce large movements of cochlear fluids. We speculated that high-level infrasound might bias the basilar membrane and perhaps be able to minimize noise-induced hearing loss. Chinchillas were simultaneously exposed to a 30 Hz tone at 100 dB SPL and a 4 kHz OBN at either 108 dB SPL for 1.75 h or 86 dB SPL for 24h. For each animal, the tympanic membrane (TM) in one ear was perforated ( approximately 1 mm(2)) prior to exposure to attenuate infrasound transmission to that cochlea by about 50 dB SPL. Controls included animals that were exposed to the infrasound only or the 4 kHz OBN only. ABR threshold shifts (TSs) and DPOAE level shifts (LSs) were determined pre- and post-TM-perforation and immediately post-exposure, just before cochlear fixation. The cochleae were dehydrated, embedded in plastic, and dissected into flat preparations of the organ of Corti (OC). Each dissected segment was evaluated for losses of inner hair cells (IHCs) and outer hair cells (OHCs). For each chinchilla, the magnitude and pattern of functional and hair cell losses were compared between their right and left cochleae. The TM perforation produced no ABR TS across frequency but did produce a 10-21 dB DPOAE LS from 0.6 to 2 kHz. The infrasound exposure alone resulted in a 10-20 dB ABR TS at and below 2 kHz, no DPOAE LS and no IHC or OHC losses. Exposure to the 4 kHz OBN alone at 108 dB produced a 10-50 dB ABR TS for 0.5-12 kHz, a 10-60 dB DPOAE LS for 0.6-16 kHz and severe OHC loss in the middle of the first turn. When infrasound was present during exposure to the 4 kHz OBN at 108 dB, the functional losses and OHC losses extended much further toward the apical and basal tips of the OC than in cochleae exposed to the 4 kHz OBN alone. Exposure to only the 4 kHz OBN at 86 dB produces a 10-40 dB ABR TS for 3-12 kHz and 10-30 dB DPOAE LS for 3-8 kHz but little or no OHC loss in the middle of the first turn. No differences were found in the functional and hair-cell losses from exposure to the 4 kHz OBN at 86 dB in the presence or absence of infrasound. We hypothesize that exposure to infrasound and an intense 4 kHz OBN increases cochlear damage because the large fluid movements from infrasound cause more intermixing of cochlear fluids through the damaged reticular lamina. Simultaneous infrasound and a moderate 4 kHz OBN did not increase cochlear damage because the reticular lamina rarely breaks down during this moderate level exposure.

Marker retention in the cochlea following injections through the round window membrane.

Local delivery of drugs to the inner ear is increasingly being used in both clinical and experimental studies. Although direct injection of drugs into perilymph appears to be the most promising way of administering drugs quantitatively, no studies have yet demonstrated the pharmacokinetics in perilymph following direct injections. In this study, we have investigated the retention of substance in perilymph following a single injection into the basal turn of scala tympani (ST). The substance injected was a marker, trimethylphenylammonium (TMPA) that can be detected in low concentrations with ion-selective microelectrodes. Perilymph pharmacokinetics of TMPA was assessed using sequential apical sampling to obtain perilymph for analysis. The amount of TMPA retained in perilymph was compared for different injection and sampling protocols. TMPA concentrations measured in fluid samples were close to those predicted by simulations when the injection pipette was sealed into the bony wall of ST but were systematically lower when the injection pipette was inserted through the round window membrane (RWM). In the latter condition, it was estimated that over 60% of the injected TMPA was lost due to leakage of perilymph around the injection pipette at a rate estimated to be 0.09muL/min. The effects of leakage during and after injections through the RWM were dramatically reduced when the round window niche was filled with 1% sodium hyaluronate gel before penetrating the RWM with the injection pipette. The findings demonstrate that in order to perform quantitative drug injections into perilymph, even small rates of fluid leakage at the injection site must be controlled.