The HEXACO Personality Space Before and After Re-Rotation to Approximate the Big Five Dimensions.

We re-oriented the HEXACO personality dimensions to approximate the Big Five, using two measures of the Big Five as targets in a derivation sample and then in cross-validation samples. The HEXACO approximations of Big Five Agreeableness represented blends of HEXACO Agreeableness, Emotionality, and Honesty-Humility. The HEXACO approximations of Big Five Neuroticism represented blends of Emotionality with low Agreeableness and low Extraversion. The residual sixth dimension, unrelated to the Big Five, contrasted Honesty-Humility with HEXACO Agreeableness. We then examined, in additional samples, some correlates of the original and re-rotated HEXACO dimensions. In the original HEXACO factor space, Honesty-Humility was the strongest correlate of unethical behaviors (selfishness and cheating), participant age, and "assumed similarity" to a friend or partner. Upon re-rotation of the HEXACO factors, associations involving these variables were divided between Big Five Agreeableness and the residual sixth dimension. Sex differences were mainly associated with Emotionality but after re-rotation of the HEXACO factors were divided between Big Five Agreeableness and Neuroticism. We discuss the relative merits of the original and Big Five-targeted HEXACO dimensions with reference to the practical utility of Big Five Agreeableness and Neuroticism and the simplicity and theoretical interpretability of the original HEXACO factors.

The distinction between symptoms and traits in the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP).

The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) is an empirically and quantitatively derived dimensional classification system designed to describe the features of psychopathology and, ultimately, to replace categorical nosologies. Among the constructs that HiTOP organizes are "symptom components" and "maladaptive traits," but past HiTOP publications have not fully explicated the distinction between symptoms and traits. We propose working definitions of symptoms and traits and explore challenges, exceptions, and remaining questions. Specifically, we propose that the only systematic difference between symptoms and traits in HiTOP is one of time frame. Maladaptive traits are dispositional constructs that describe persistent tendencies to manifest features of psychopathology, whereas symptoms are features of psychopathology as they are manifest during any specific time period (from moments to days to months). This has the consequence that almost every HiTOP dimension, at any level of the hierarchy, can be assessed as either a trait or a symptom dimension, by adjusting the framing of the assessment. We discuss the implications of these definitions for causal models of the relations between symptoms and traits and for distinctions between psychopathology, normal personality variation, and dysfunction.

Les progrès dans la réalisation de la classification quantitative de la psychopathologie.

Shortcomings of approaches to classifying psychopathology based on expert consensus have given rise to contemporary efforts to classify psychopathology quantitatively. In this paper, we review progress in achieving a quantitative and empirical classification of psychopathology. A substantial empirical literature indicates that psychopathology is generally more dimensional than categorical. When the discreteness versus continuity of psychopathology is treated as a research question, as opposed to being decided as a matter of tradition, the evidence clearly supports the hypothesis of continuity. In addition, a related body of literature shows how psychopathology dimensions can be arranged in a hierarchy, ranging from very broad "spectrum level" dimensions, to specific and narrow clusters of symptoms. In this way, a quantitative approach solves the "problem of comorbidity" by explicitly modeling patterns of co-occurrence among signs and symptoms within a detailed and variegated hierarchy of dimensional concepts with direct clinical utility. Indeed, extensive evidence pertaining to the dimensional and hierarchical structure of psychopathology has led to the formation of the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) Consortium. This is a group of 70 investigators working together to study empirical classification of psychopathology. In this paper, we describe the aims and current foci of the HiTOP Consortium. These aims pertain to continued research on the empirical organization of psychopathology; the connection between personality and psychopathology; the utility of empirically based psychopathology constructs in both research and the clinic; and the development of novel and comprehensive models and corresponding assessment instruments for psychopathology constructs derived from an empirical approach.

Specific Bacteria and Metabolites Associated With Response to Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in Patients With Ulcerative Colitis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) can induce remission in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC). In a randomized controlled trial of FMT in patients with active UC, we aimed to identify bacterial taxonomic and functional factors associated with response to therapy. METHODS: We performed a double-blind trial of 81 patients with active UC randomly assigned to groups that received an initial colonoscopic infusion and then intensive multidonor FMT or placebo enemas, 5 d/wk for 8 weeks. Patients in the FMT group received blended homogenized stool from 3-7 unrelated donors. Patients in the placebo group were eligible to receive open-label FMT after the double-blind study period. We collected 314 fecal samples from the patients at screening, every 4 weeks during treatment, and 8 weeks after the blinded or open-label FMT therapy. We also collected 160 large-bowel biopsy samples from the patients at study entry, at completion of 8 weeks of blinded therapy, and at the end of open-label FMT, if applicable. We analyzed 105 fecal samples from the 14 individual donors (n = 55), who in turn contributed to 21 multidonor batches (n = 50). Bacteria in colonic and fecal samples were analyzed by both 16S ribosomal RNA gene and transcript amplicon sequencing; 285 fecal samples were analyzed by shotgun metagenomics, and 60 fecal samples were analyzed for metabolome features. RESULTS: FMT increased microbial diversity and altered composition, based on analyses of colon and fecal samples collected before vs after FMT. Diversity was greater in fecal and colon samples collected before and after FMT treatment from patients who achieved remission compared with patients who did not. Patients in remission after FMT had enrichment of Eubacterium hallii and Roseburia inulivorans compared with patients who did not achieve remission after FMT and had increased levels of short-chain fatty acid biosynthesis and secondary bile acids. Patients who did not achieve remission had enrichment of Fusobacterium gonidiaformans, Sutterella wadsworthensis, and Escherichia species and increased levels of heme and lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis. Bacteroides in donor stool were associated with remission in patients receiving FMT, and Streptococcus species in donor stool was associated with no response to FMT. CONCLUSIONS: In an analysis of fecal and colonic mucosa samples from patients receiving FMT for active UC and stool samples from donors, we associated specific bacteria and metabolic pathways with induction of remission. These findings may be of value in the design of microbe-based therapies for UC. ClinicalTrials.gov, Number NCT01896635.

Development of a Short Form of the Abridged Big Five-Dimensional Circumplex Model to Aid with the Organization of Personality Traits.

Although there has been widespread consensus on the use of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of general personality functioning in personality research, there are various, diverse models of the lower order traits of the FFM domains. Given the usefulness of these finer grained traits, it is imperative to integrate facets proposed across a variety of models and eventually reach consensus on the lower level traits of the FFM. Due to its depth and coverage, the Abridged Big Five-Dimensional Circumplex (AB5C) model potentially provides a useful framework for organizing various faceted models due to its conceptual organization and inclusiveness. The only measure of this model-the IPIP-AB5C-has shown promise, but is limited by its length (i.e., 485 items). This study developed an abbreviated version of the IPIP-AB5C using an iterative process including item response theory methods. The shorter version maintained key features of the long form including a factor structure that matched the full form as well as facets that correlated in expected ways with other FFM measures. Building on this support, the short form was used to contextualize and organize the facets from 2 commonly used measures.

Criterion A of the AMPD in HiTOP.

The categorical model of personality disorder classification in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed. [DSM-5]; American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ) is highly and fundamentally problematic. Proposed for DSM-5 and provided within Section III (for Emerging Measures and Models) was the Alternative Model of Personality Disorder (AMPD) classification, consisting of Criterion A (self-interpersonal deficits) and Criterion B (maladaptive personality traits). A proposed alternative to the DSM-5 more generally is an empirically based dimensional organization of psychopathology identified as the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP; Kotov et al., 2017 ). HiTOP currently includes, at the highest level, a general factor of psychopathology. Further down are the five domains of detachment, antagonistic externalizing, disinhibited externalizing, thought disorder, and internalizing (along with a provisional sixth somatoform dimension) that align with Criterion B. The purpose of this article is to discuss the potential inclusion and placement of the self-interpersonal deficits of the DSM-5 Section III Criterion A within HiTOP.

Multidonor intensive faecal microbiota transplantation for active ulcerative colitis: a randomised placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The intestinal microbiota is implicated in the pathogenesis of ulcerative colitis. Faecal microbiota transplantation is a novel form of therapeutic microbial manipulation, but its efficacy in ulcerative colitis is uncertain. We aimed to establish the efficacy of intensive-dosing, multidonor, faecal microbiota transplantation in active ulcerative colitis. METHODS: We conducted a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial at three hospitals in Australia. We randomly allocated patients with active ulcerative colitis (Mayo score 4-10) in a 1:1 ratio, using a pre-established randomisation list, to either faecal microbiota transplantation or placebo colonoscopic infusion, followed by enemas 5 days per week for 8 weeks. Patients, treating clinicians, and other study staff were unaware of the assigned treatment. Faecal microbiota transplantation enemas were each derived from between three and seven unrelated donors. The primary outcome was steroid-free clinical remission with endoscopic remission or response (Mayo score ≤2, all subscores ≤1, and ≥1 point reduction in endoscopy subscore) at week 8. Analysis was by modified intention-to-treat and included all patients receiving one study dose. We performed 16S rRNA stool analysis to assess associated microbial changes. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01896635. The trial has ended; this report presents the final analysis. FINDINGS: From November, 2013, to May, 2015, 85 patients were enrolled to our trial, of whom 42 were randomly assigned faecal microbiota transplantation and 43 were allocated placebo. One patient assigned faecal microbiota transplantation and three allocated placebo did not receive study treatment and were excluded from the analysis. The primary outcome was achieved in 11 (27%) of 41 patients allocated faecal microbiota transplantation versus three (8%) of 40 who were assigned placebo (risk ratio 3·6, 95% CI 1·1-11·9; p=0·021). Adverse events were reported by 32 (78%) of 41 patients allocated faecal microbiota transplantation and 33 (83%) of 40 who were assigned placebo; most were self-limiting gastrointestinal complaints, with no significant difference in number or type of adverse events between treatment groups. Serious adverse events occurred in two patients assigned faecal microbiota transplantation and in one allocated placebo. Microbial diversity increased with and persisted after faecal microbiota transplantation. Several bacterial taxa were associated with clinical outcome; in particular, the presence of Fusobacterium spp was associated with lack of remission. INTERPRETATION: Intensive-dosing, multidonor, faecal microbiota transplantation induces clinical remission and endoscopic improvement in active ulcerative colitis and is associated with distinct microbial changes that relate to outcome. Faecal microbiota transplantation is, thus, a promising new therapeutic option for ulcerative colitis. Future work should focus on precisely defining the optimum treatment intensity and the role of donor-recipient matching based on microbial profiles. FUNDING: Broad Medical Research Program, Gastroenterological Society of Australia, Mount Sinai (New York) SUCCESS fund, University of New South Wales.

A Preliminary Probe of Personality Predicting Psychotherapy Outcomes: Perspectives from Therapists and Their Clients.

BACKGROUND: It is widely established that personality disorder has as broad negative impact on psychotherapy outcomes. Given the increased emphasis on dimensional traits for personality pathology in the DSM-5 and the proposal for the ICD-11, it is important to understand how traits are linked to treatment outcomes. Building on past research with general traits, we hypothesized that more nuanced and specific relations would be apparent. Furthermore, much of the past research has relied upon self-reports of personality and little is known about how ratings from therapists might be related to outcomes. SAMPLING AND METHODS: The present paper examined how dimensional traits from the Five-Factor Model predicted outcomes in a case series of 54 therapist-client dyads within a doctoral training clinic. Importantly, this extends past research as dimensional traits were rated by both therapists and clients at intake as well as sequentially over the course of therapy. RESULTS: Correlations and regression analyses indicated that traits predicted a variety of outcomes including initial engagement in treatment as well as overall symptom reduction across therapy. Specifically, preliminary evidence suggests that therapist-rated conscientiousness at intake was positively related to clients' early engagement in therapy. In addition, openness to experience after the 4th session - particularly as rated by the client - was predictive of long-term therapy outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Broadly, these results provided preliminary information about the promise of dimensional models for improving the clinical utility of personality disorder diagnoses. More specifically, these results reinforced the relevance of personality assessment during therapy and indicated the potential predictive value of ratings by therapists and their clients.

Capturing the DSM-5 Alternative Personality Disorder Model Traits in the Five-Factor Model's Nomological Net.

Several studies have shown structural and statistical similarities between the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM-5) alternative personality disorder model and the Five-Factor Model (FFM). However, no study to date has evaluated the nomological network similarities between the two models. The relations of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) with relevant criterion variables were examined in a sample of 336 undergraduate students (Mage = 19.4; 59.8% female). The resulting profiles for each instrument were statistically compared for similarity. Four of the five domains of the two models have highly similar nomological networks, with the exception being FFM Openness to Experience and PID-5 Psychoticism. Further probing of that pair suggested that the NEO PI-R domain scores obscured meaningful similarity between PID-5 Psychoticism and specific aspects and lower-order facets of Openness. The results support the notion that the DSM-5 alternative personality disorder model trait domains represent variants of the FFM domains. Similarities of Openness and Psychoticism domains were supported when the lower-order aspects and facets of Openness domain were considered. The findings support the view that the DSM-5 trait model represents an instantiation of the FFM.

Measurement of fecal calprotectin improves monitoring and detection of recurrence of Crohn's disease after surgery.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Crohn's disease (CD) usually recurs after intestinal resection; postoperative endoscopic monitoring and tailored treatment can reduce the chance of recurrence. We investigated whether monitoring levels of fecal calprotectin (FC) can substitute for endoscopic analysis of the mucosa. METHODS: We analyzed data collected from 135 participants in a prospective, randomized, controlled trial, performed at 17 hospitals in Australia and 1 hospital in New Zealand, that assessed the ability of endoscopic evaluations and step-up treatment to prevent CD recurrence after surgery. Levels of FC, serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), and Crohn's disease activity index (CDAI) scores were measured before surgery and then at 6, 12, and 18 months after resection of all macroscopic Crohn's disease. Ileocolonoscopies were performed at 6 months after surgery in 90 patients and at 18 months after surgery in all patients. RESULTS: Levels of FC were measured in 319 samples from 135 patients. The median FC level decreased from 1347 µg/g before surgery to 166 µg/g at 6 months after surgery, but was higher in patients with disease recurrence (based on endoscopic analysis; Rutgeerts score, ≥i2) than in patients in remission (275 vs 72 µg/g, respectively; P < .001). Combined 6- and 18-month levels of FC correlated with the presence (r = 0.42; P < .001) and severity (r = 0.44; P < .001) of CD recurrence, but the CRP level and CDAI score did not. Levels of FC greater than 100 µg/g indicated endoscopic recurrence with 89% sensitivity and 58% specificity, and a negative predictive value (NPV) of 91%; this means that colonoscopy could have been avoided in 47% of patients. Six months after surgery, FC levels less than 51 µg/g in patients in endoscopic remission predicted maintenance of remission (NPV, 79%). In patients with endoscopic recurrence at 6 months who stepped-up treatment, FC levels decreased from 324 µg/g at 6 months to 180 µg/g at 12 months and 109 µg/g at 18 months. CONCLUSIONS: In this analysis of data from a prospective clinical trial, FC measurement has sufficient sensitivity and NPV values to monitor for CD recurrence after intestinal resection. Its predictive value might be used to identify patients most likely to relapse. After treatment for recurrence, the FC level can be used to monitor response to treatment. It predicts which patients will have disease recurrence with greater accuracy than CRP level or CDAI score.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease Environmental Risk Factors: A Population-Based Case-Control Study of Middle Eastern Migration to Australia.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The incidences of the inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are increasing, indicating gene-environment interactions. Migrants from low-IBD-prevalence countries to a high-prevalence country may help identify the relative contribution of environmental risk factors compared with native Caucasians. METHODS: This prospective case-control study evaluated IBD environmental risk factors of Middle Eastern migrants (MEM) in Australia compared with matched Caucasian IBD subjects, MEM controls, Caucasian controls, and controls in the Middle East using adjusted odds ratios (aOR). RESULTS: A total of 795 subjects were recruited: 154 MEM cases (75 CD; 79 UC), 153 MEM controls, 162 Caucasian cases (85 CD; 77 UC), 173 Caucasian controls, and 153 controls in Lebanon. Smoking increased CD risk in MEM and Caucasians and reduced UC risk in Caucasians (aOR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.41-0.98) but not MEM (aOR, 1.45; 95% CI, 0.80-2.62). Antibiotic use reduced the risk of MEM CD (aOR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.11-0.67) and UC (aOR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.18-0.80), but increased the risk in Caucasians (CD: aOR, 5.24; 95% CI, 2.13-12.90; and UC: aOR, 6.82; 95% CI, 2.67-17.38). Most hygiene markers (rural dwelling, pet ownership, pet feeding, and farm animal contact) reduced CD and UC risk in MEM (P < .05). In contrast, in Caucasians these hygiene markers lacked significance. Other significant risk factors include IBD family history, appendectomy, tonsillectomy, and breastfeeding. CONCLUSIONS: Differential IBD environmental risk factors exist between migrants and native Caucasians, indicating a dynamic interplay between environmental factors and IBD risk for immigrants that is distinct to those factors most relevant in native Caucasians.

Comparing the Personality Disorder Interview for DSM-IV (PDI-IV) and SCID-II borderline personality disorder scales: an item-response theory analysis.

One-hundred sixty-nine psychiatric outpatients and 171 undergraduate students were assessed with the Personality Disorder Interview-IV (PDI-IV; Widiger, Mangine, Corbitt, Ellis, & Thomas, 1995) and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II disorders (SCID-II; First, Gibbon, Spitzer, Williams, & Benjamin, 1997) for borderline personality disorder (BPD). Eighty individuals met PDI-IV BPD criteria, whereas 34 met SCID-II BPD criteria. Dimensional ratings of both measures were highly intercorrelated (rs = .78, .75), and item-level interrater reliability fell in the good to excellent range. An item-response theory analysis was performed to investigate whether properties of the items from each interview could help understand these differences. The limited agreement seemed to be explained by differences in the response options across the two interviews. We found that suicidal behavior was among the most discriminating criteria on both instruments, whereas dissociation and difficulty controlling anger had the 2 lowest alpha parameter values. Finally, those meeting BPD criteria on both interviews had higher levels of anxiety, depression, and more impairments in object relations than those meeting criteria on just the PDI-IV. These findings suggest that the choice of measure has a notable effect on the obtained diagnostic prevalence and the level of BPD severity that is detected.

Ten-year rank-order stability of personality traits and disorders in a clinical sample.

OBJECTIVE: This study compares the 10-year retest stability of normal traits, pathological traits, and personality disorder dimensions in a clinical sample. METHOD: Ten-year rank-order stability estimates for the Revised NEO Personality Inventory, Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality, and Diagnostic Interview for DSM-IV Personality Disorders were evaluated before and after correcting for test-retest dependability and internal consistency in a clinical sample (N = 266). RESULTS: Dependability-corrected stability estimates were generally in the range of.60-.90 for traits and.25-.65 for personality disorders. CONCLUSIONS: The relatively lower stability of personality disorder symptoms may indicate important differences between pathological behaviors and relatively more stable self-attributed traits and imply that a full understanding of personality and personality pathology needs to take both traits and symptoms into account. The five-factor theory distinction between basic tendencies and characteristic adaptations provides a theoretical framework for the separation of traits and disorders in terms of stability in which traits reflect basic tendencies that are stable and pervasive across situations, whereas personality disorder symptoms reflect characteristic maladaptations that are a function of both basic tendencies and environmental dynamics.

Interpersonal and personality disorders: Commentary on Wright et al. (2022).

Wright et al. (2022) propose to replace personality disorders with a new classification of interpersonal disorders. We suggest that the trait model addresses well the limitations of the personality disorder categorical syndromes and accommodates the dynamics asserted as strengths of the interpersonal model. We identify weaknesses of the interpersonal model that explain why it has never been officially adopted. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Maladaptive variants of conscientiousness and agreeableness.

Although reasonably strong support has been obtained for the Five-Factor Model's (FFM) ability to account for the existing personality disorder (PD) constructs, the support for obsessive-compulsive PD (OCPD) and dependent PD (DPD) has been relatively less consistent. Specifically, the expected correlation between OCPD and the FFM trait of Conscientiousness has varied in magnitude across studies while DPD has, at times, also evinced rather weak relationships with FFM Agreeableness. We determined that these inconsistencies were due primarily to the reliance on FFM measures that lack adequate fidelity to assess the maladaptive aspects of high Conscientiousness and Agreeableness. When alternative measures were utilized, the correlations were generally large and in line with expectations. We conclude that OCPD and DPD can be fruitfully conceptualized within the FFM but encourage the use of measures that provide a comprehensive assessment of both the adaptive and maladaptive aspects of the FFM traits.

A five-factor measure of obsessive-compulsive personality traits.

This study provides convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity data for the Five-Factor Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (FFOCI), a newly developed measure of traits relevant to obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) from the perspective of the Five-factor model (FFM). Twelve scales were constructed as maladaptive variants of specific FFM facets (e.g., Perfectionism as a maladaptive variant of FFM competence). On the basis of data from 407 undergraduates (oversampled for OCPD symptoms) these 12 scales demonstrated convergent correlations with established measures of OCPD and the FFM. Further, they obtained strong discriminant validity with respect to facets from other FFM domains. Most important, the individual scales and total score of the FFOCI obtained incremental validity beyond existing measures of the FFM and OCPD for predicting a composite measure of obsessive-compulsive symptomatology. The findings support the validity of the FFOCI as a measure of obsessive-compulsive personality traits, as well as of maladaptive variants of the FFM.

The alternative model of personality disorder is inadequate for capturing obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

The alternative model of personality disorder (AMPD) included in Section III of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) reconceptualized personality pathology in terms of pathological traits and impairments in functioning. For example, the construct of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) was reconceptualized via the traits of rigid perfectionism as well as at least 2 of perseveration, intimacy avoidance, and restricted affectivity. We review the literature to summarize how effectively the legacy construct of OCPD is captured by the AMPD. We conclude that although the trait of rigid perfectionism is highly related to scores on OCPD measures, the AMPD as a whole fails to adequately account for the broader features of the legacy OCPD construct. Specifically, the AMPD trait model lacks a number of traits, such as workaholism, excessive deliberation, and moral scrupulousness, which are necessary for a fulsome dimensional trait system. These limitations in the inclusion of important traits stem from the AMPD's development process that left out crucial content. We outline how the AMPD could be improved in its ability to account for problems of overcontrolled behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Ratings of dimensional traits in clinical practice: Comparing therapist and client perspectives.

Research has repeatedly evidenced the structural validity of the five-factor model (FFM), but questions remain about the use of its dimensions in clinical practice. Samuel and colleagues (2018) found therapists reported their clients had lower levels of personality pathology compared with clients' own self-reports when using the unipolar Personality Inventory for the DSM-5 (PID-5) scale. The present study utilized the same sample of 54 client-therapist dyads to examine their use of the bipolar FFM Rating Form. When comparing the clinical ratings to expertly rated healthy profile ratings, clients rated themselves as more aligned with healthy than their therapists rated them. Alternatively, clients were up to 3.6 times more likely to use the extreme (i.e., theoretically pathological) ratings of the FFM Rating Form compared with their therapists. These results suggest that therapists and clients use these measures quite differently, and we cannot firmly conclude which source reports more pathology. Theoretical explanations, limitations, and future directions are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).