Impacts of bariatric surgery in health outcomes and health care costs in Brazil: Interrupted time series analysis of multi-panel data.

BACKGROUND: The increasing burden of obesity generates significant socioeconomic impacts for individuals, populations, and national health systems worldwide. The literature on impacts and cost-effectiveness of obesity-related interventions for prevention and treatment of moderate to severe obesity indicate that bariatric surgery presents high costs associated with high effectiveness in improving health status referring to certain outcomes; however, there is a lack of robust evidence at an individual-level estimation of its impacts on multiple health outcomes related to obesity comorbidities. METHODS: The study encompasses a single-centre retrospective longitudinal analysis of patient-level data using micro-costing technique to estimate direct health care costs with cost-effectiveness for multiple health outcomes pre-and post-bariatric surgery. Data from 114 patients who had bariatric surgery at the Hospital of Clinics of the University of Sao Paulo during 2018 were investigated through interrupted time-series analysis with generalised estimating equations and marginal effects, including information on patients' characteristics, lifestyle, anthropometric measures, hemodynamic measures, biochemical exams, and utilisation of health care resources during screening (180 days before) and follow-up (180 days after) of bariatric surgery. RESULTS: The preliminary statistical analysis showed that health outcomes presented improvement, except cholesterol and VLDL, and overall direct health care costs increased after the intervention. However, interrupted time series analysis showed that the rise in health care costs is attributable to the high cost of bariatric surgery, followed by a statistically significant decrease in post-intervention health care costs. Changes in health outcomes were also statistically significant in general, except in cholesterol and LDL, leading to significant improvements in patients' health status after the intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Trends multiple health outcomes showed statistically significant improvements in patients' health status post-intervention compared to trends pre-intervention, resulting in reduced direct health care costs and the burden of obesity.

Associations among diet costs, food prices and income: Elasticities of risk and protection food groups for cardiometabolic diseases in Sao Paulo, Brazil (2003-2015).

Background: Economic dimension comprises important determinants of food choices, particularly income and prices. Aim: Identification of the influence of food prices and diet costs on the consumption of food groups considered protection and risk factors for cardiometabolic diseases. Methods: Food groups classification follows the proposal of "What we eat in America?" from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), adapted to Latin America. Data on food consumption from the Health Survey of Sao Paulo (2003, 2008, and 2015), representative at population level, was used. Log-linear regressions were estimated for food groups, controlling for endogeneity through augmented regression-test Results: Results showed increase in prices per calorie of whole grains and red meat from 2003-2015 and a decrease in prices per calorie of fruits, vegetables, beans, legumes, oilseeds and fish/seafood. Food groups had price elasticities between -0.01 and -1.6, i.e., decrease in consumption associated with increase in prices. Results showed statistically significant effects of substitution and complementarity, particularly substitution between sweetened beverages and fruits (2003, ß = 0.606; 2008: ß = 0.683; 2015, ß = 0.848), complementarity between nuts and seeds and whole grains (2003, ß = -0.646; 2008, ß = -0.647; 2015,ß = -0.901), and vegetables and processed meat (2003, ß = -1.379; 2015, ß = -1.685). Conclusion: Findings of the study represent relevant evidence for design strategies towards the adoption of healthier diets, particularly through subsidies to protection food groups, promoting lower prices and higher diet quality. The evidence may be useful for policymakers and researchers in fields of nutrition and health in diverse countries worldwide, especially due to absence of robust evidence in literature.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative in promotion of breast-feeding and reduction of late neonatal infant mortality in Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the cost-effectiveness of Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) in promoting breast-feeding during the first hour of life (BFFHL) and reducing late neonatal mortality. DESIGN: Cost-effectiveness economic assessment from the health system perspective, preceded by a prospective cohort of mother-baby followed from birth to 6 months of life. The direct costs associated with two health outcomes were analysed: intermediate end point (BFFHL) and final end point (reduction in late neonatal mortality). SETTING: Study was carried out in six hospitals in the city of São Paulo (Brazil), three being Baby-Friendly Hospitals (BFH) and three non-BFH. PARTICIPANTS: Mothers with 24 h postpartum, over 18 years old, single fetus and breast-feeding at the time of the interview were included. Poisson regressions adjusted for maternal age and level of education were estimated to identify factors related to BFFHL and late neonatal mortality. Sensitivity analysis was performed to ensure robustness of the economic assessment. RESULTS: Cost-effectiveness analysis showed that BFHI was highly cost-effective in raising BFFHL by 32·0 % at lower cost in comparison with non-BFHI. In addition, BFHI was cost-effective in reducing late neonatal mortality rate by 13·0 % from all causes and by 13·1 % of infant mortality rate from infections. CONCLUSIONS: The cost-effectiveness of the BFHI in promoting breast-feeding and reducing neonatal mortality rates justifies the investments required for its expansion within the Brazilian health system.

Study protocol: health survey of Sao Paulo: ISA-Physical Activity and Environment.

BACKGROUND: Many studies have investigated the association between the built environment and physical activity behavior in urban settings. However, most of the studies conducted in low- and middle-income countries were cross-sectional, which are limited to identify behavioral determinants. We propose a prospective cohort study to verify the relationship between built environment features and leisure-time and transport-related physical activity in adults from Sao Paulo city, Brazil. METHODS: Prospective multilevel cohort, denominated "ISA-Physical Activity and Environment". It will build on the Health Survey of Sao Paulo in 2015 ("Inquérito de Saúde de São Paulo (ISA)" in Portuguese). The Health Survey of Sao Paulo, originally designed as a cross-sectional survey, had a multi-stage sample, covering 150 census tracts distributed in five health administrative areas. Data collection was performed by face-to-face interviews until December 2015 and the sample comprised 4043 individuals aged 12 years or more. The ISA-Physical Activity and Environment study will reassess people who are aged 18 years or more in 2020, including telephone and household interviews. The primary outcome will be leisure-time and transport-related physical activity, assessed through the International Physical Activity Questionnaire long version. Exposure variables will be built environment features in the areas participants live and work in the follow-up. Data analysis will include multivariate multilevel linear and logistic models. We will also conduct cost-effectiveness analysis and develop agent-based models to help inform decision-makers. The study will be conducted by an interdisciplinary research team specialized in physical activity epidemiology, nutritional epidemiology, georeferencing applied to health, statistics, agent-based modeling, public health policy, and health economics. DISCUSSION: There are few longitudinal studies on the relationship between the built environment and physical activity behavior in low- and middle-income countries. We believe that the ISA-Physical Activity and Environment study will contribute with important results for the progress of the knowledge in this field and for the implementation of policies that promote leisure-time physical activity and active travel in Sao Paulo and similar cities across the world.

Planning dietary improvements without additional costs for low-income individuals in Brazil: linear programming optimization as a tool for public policy in nutrition and health.

BACKGROUND: Meeting nutrient intake recommendations may demand substantial modifications in dietary patterns, and may increase diet cost. Incentives for modifying one's dietary intake that disregard prices are unlikely to be effective in the general population, especially among low-income strata, due to the high percentage of income committed to food purchases. The aim of this study is to evaluate how much the nutrient content can be increased through a modeled diet, without any cost increase, for low-income Brazilian households. METHODS: Low-income households were selected from the Household Budget Survey (24,688 households) and National Dietary Survey (6,032 households, 16,962 individuals), from where we obtained food prices and consumption data. Food quantities were modeled using linear programming to find diets that meet nutritional recommendations in two sets of models: cost-constrained (the cost should not be higher than the observed diet cost) and cost-free. Minimum and maximum amounts of each food in the modelled diets were allowed at three levels of food acceptability: rigorous (least deviance from the current observed diets), moderate, and flexible (higher deviance from the current observed diets). RESULTS: We found no feasible solution that would accommodate all the nutritional targets. The most frequent limiting nutrients were calcium; vitamins D, E, and A; zinc; fiber; sodium; and saturated and trans-fats. However, increases in nutrient contents were observed, especially for fiber, calcium, copper, magnesium, vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E. In general, the best achievement was obtained with cost-free models. Fruits and beans increased in all models; large increase in whole cereals was observed only in the flexible models; large increase in vegetables was observed only in the cost-free models; and fish increased only in the cost-free models. Reductions were observed for rice, red and processed meats, sugar-sweetened beverages, and sweets. The mean observed cost was US$2.16 per person/day. The mean cost in the cost-free models was US$2.90 (moderate), US$2.70 (rigorous), and US$2.60 (flexible). CONCLUSION: The complete nutritional adequacy is unattainable, although feasible changes would substantially improve diet quality by improving nutrient content without additional costs.

Determinants of inequalities in the quality of Brazilian diet: trends in 12-year population-based study (2003-2015).

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have explored the influence of socioeconomic inequalities on the diet quality. However, there is lack of evidence regarding the level of inequalities in dietary quality and its main contributing factors from population-based follow-up studies. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the level and the determinants of inequalities in diet quality in a representative sample of adolescents, adults and older adults resident in São Paulo, Brazil. METHODS: Data from the Health Survey of São Paulo (ISA-Capital) were analyzed for 2003 (n = 2398), 2008 (n = 1662) and 2015 (n = 1742) surveys. Information on food consumption was obtained through 24-h dietary recall, and diet quality was assessed based on the Revised Brazilian Healthy Eating Index (BHEI-R). The descriptive variables were compared using 95% confidence interval. The scores of BHEI-R and its components were compared across age groups and year. The association between socioeconomic inequalities and diet quality was based on the estimation of concentration index. RESULTS: We observed that the BHEI-R scores gradually improved over 12-years, with older adults showing the greatest improvement. The increase in overall population score was observed for total fruits, whole fruits, whole grains, oils and sodium. The main contributor to socioeconomic inequality in diet quality in 2003 was ethnic group, and in 2008 and 2015, it was per capita household income; age was a persistent factor of inequality in the population over the years. Concentration indices indicated that lower income individuals had higher BHEI-R scores in 2003; however, there was a shift in favor of higher income individuals in 2008 and 2015. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in the patterns of determination of inequalities according to age, ethnic group or income during the period analyzed show the existence of ongoing process of contribution of demographic and socioeconomic factors in the diet quality of individuals in a large urban center.

Main meal quality in Brazil and United Kingdom: Similarities and differences.

Consumption of fast food and ready-to-eat meals has been positively associated with obesity. In the UK, ready-made meals are more often consumed than in Brazil, a country in which nutrition transition is relatively low. This study aimed to compare the nutritional quality of the main meal consumed by adults in Brazil and UK. Food record data was obtained from representative samples from UK and Brazil databases. The Main Meal Quality Index (MMQI) was applied to estimate the quality of the main meal consumed in Brazil and UK. Differences in food groups consumed in the main meal in Brazil and UK were observed using classification decision tree. Meals with higher average energy content were lunch for Brazil, and dinner for the UK. On average, the Brazilian main meal had better nutritional quality (4.42 times higher), independently of sex, age, family income, nutritional status and energy consumed, with higher scores of fiber, carbohydrate, total fat, saturated fat and energy density. However, UK's main meal included more fruits and vegetables. Food preparations combined with rice and beans were classified as Brazilian main meal, while combinations with fast food items, as fried potatoes, sandwiches and sugary beverages, were classified as UK main meals. In Brazil, the main meal quality was lower among women and obese individuals, presenting significant positive association with age, and negative association with energy intake and family income; while in UK, only age was positively associated with MMQI. Although main meals in Brazil had higher nutritional quality compared to the UK, main meals consumed in both countries need nutritional improvement.

Price and convenience: The influence of supermarkets on consumption of ultra-processed foods and beverages in Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of convenience and price of ultra-processed foods and beverages on purchases at supermarkets. METHODS: The study used data on food and beverage acquisition for household consumption from the Brazilian Household Budget Survey, performed in a random sample of 55,970 households between 2008 and 2009. Foods and beverages were categorized into four groups, according to characteristics of food processing. Retail stores were grouped into supermarkets and other food stores. Proportion of calories from foods and beverages purchased at supermarkets and other food stores, and respective mean prices (R$/1000 kcal), were calculated according to households' geographical and socioeconomic characteristics. Effect of convenience in household purchases at retail stores was expressed by the acquisition of several food items at the same store. The influence of convenience and prices of ultra-processed products on purchases at supermarkets was analyzed using log-log regression model with estimation of elasticity coefficients. RESULTS: The mean prices of foods and beverages purchased at supermarkets were 37% lower in comparison to other food stores. The share of ultra-processed foods and beverages in purchases made at supermarkets was 25% higher than at other food stores. An increase of 1% in prices of ultra-processed food items led to a 0.59% reduction in calorie acquisition at supermarkets (R2 = 0.75; p < 0.001). On the other hand, an increase of 1% in the number of food items purchased at supermarkets resulted in 1.83% increase in calorie acquisition of ultra-processed foods and beverages (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Convenience and lower relative prices of food items purchased at supermarkets, in comparison to other food stores, are relevant to explain higher share of purchases of ultra-processed foods and beverages at supermarkets.

Determinants of Inequalities in the Exposure to and Adoption of Multiple Health Risk Behaviors among Brazilian Adolescents, 2009-2019.

The occurrence of multiple risk behaviors among adolescents imposes challenges in the context of public policies of health, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Evidence on the conditions leading to the exposure to and adoption of multiple risk behaviors allows the identification of vulnerable groups of adolescents, and may support the proposition of targeted strategies directed to individuals at risk. Therefore, the aim of this study was to perform a quantitative analysis to identify recent trends in the exposure to and adoption of multiple health risk behaviors among Brazilian adolescents, highlighting individual-, household-, and school-level characteristics linked to inequalities among social groups. The analysis was based on cross-sectional data from the National Student Health Survey (PeNSE), conducted by the Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics in 2009, 2012, 2015, and 2019. The trends in the occurrence of multiple risk behaviors among adolescents were estimated according to social strata, allowing the calculation of concentration indexes and their disaggregation into major determinants of inequalities in the exposure and adoption of risk behaviors. The analyses were conducted using a complex survey design to allow representativeness at the population level. The results showed a rise in the incidence of multiple risk behaviors among youngsters in Brazil from 2009 to 2019. Factors influencing inequalities in the exposure to multiple risk behaviors were socioeconomic status and the characteristics of the household and school environments, whilst the adoption of multiple risk behaviors was also influenced by early exposure to multiple risk behaviors. Furthermore, trends in inequalities in the exposure to and adoption of multiple risk behaviors showed an intensification from 2009 to 2019, being initially concentrated among wealthier adolescents, followed by a transition to higher incidence in the lower socioeconomic strata in 2012 and 2015, respectively. The findings underscore the role of support systems for adolescents at risk within the familial and school contexts, whereas strategies of public policies of health based on the strengthening of community ties may require improvements to tackle socioeconomic inequalities in the occurrence of risk behaviors among youngsters.

Association between Inflammatory and Metabolic Biomarkers and Common Mental Disorders among Adults: 2015 Health Survey of São Paulo, SP, Brazil.

Recent studies suggest that plasma inflammatory biomarker concentrations may represent valuable indicators for the diagnosis and prognosis of mental disorders. At the same time, metabolic alterations may contribute to the development and progression of systemic low-grade inflammation. Background/Objectives: This study evaluated the association between plasma inflammatory biomarkers and common mental disorders (CMD), exploring the relationship between metabolic biomarkers, metabolic syndrome (MetS), and inflammatory biomarkers in younger and older adults. Methods: This cross-sectional study used data from the 2015 Health Survey of São Paulo with a Focus on Nutrition Study. The occurrence of CMD was assessed through the Self-Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20). Blood samples were used to measure plasma concentrations of inflammatory and cardiometabolic biomarkers. MetS was defined according to the International Diabetes Federation Consensus. The Mann-Whitney test compared inflammatory biomarker concentrations across CMD groups and cardiometabolic conditions, and logistic regression models explored associations between inflammatory biomarker concentration and CMD. Results: The sample included 575 participants, 22.6% (n = 130) of whom had CMD. Concentrations of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1, C-reactive protein (CRP), and the systemic low-grade inflammation score varied significantly among CMD groups. CRP concentrations were positively associated with the presence of CMD, independent of confounding factors. Participants with insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and MetS exhibited significantly higher CRP concentrations than individuals without these conditions. Conclusions: The findings suggest that increased plasma CRP concentrations may be a potential risk factor for CMD. Higher CRP concentrations were observed in individuals with insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and MetS. Future interventional studies should explore these hypotheses in diverse populations.

Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors Associated with Impoverishment Due to Out-of-Pocket Health Expenditure in São Paulo City, Brazil.

The rise in obesity and related chronic noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) during recent decades in Brazil has been associated with increases in the financial burden and risk of impoverishment due to out-of-pocket (OOP) health expenditure. Thus, this study investigated trends and predictors associated with impoverishment due to health expenditure, in the population of São Paulo city, Brazil, between 2003 and 2015. Household data from the São Paulo Health Survey (n = 5475) were used to estimate impoverishment linked to OOP health expenses, using the three thresholds of International Poverty Lines (IPLs) defined by the World Bank at 1.90, 3.20, and 5.50 dollars per capita per day purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2011. The results indicated a high incidence of impoverishment due to OOP disbursements for health care throughout the period, predominantly concentrated among low-income individuals. Lifestyle choices referring to leisure-time physical activity (OR = 0.766 at $3.20 IPL, and OR = 0.789 at $5.50 IPL) were linked to reduction in the risk for impoverishment due to OOP health expenditures whilst there were increases in the probability of impoverishment due to cardiometabolic risk factors referring to obesity (OR = 1.588 at $3.20 IPL, and OR = 1.633 at $5.50 IPL), and diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases (OR = 2.268 at $1.90 IPL, OR = 1.967 at $3.20 IPL, and OR = 1.936 at $5.50 IPL). Diagnosis of type 2 diabetes mellitus was associated with an increase in the probability of impoverishment at only the $1.90 IPL (OR = 2.506), whilst coefficients for high blood pressure presented lack of significance in the models. Health policies should focus on interventions for prevention of obesity to ensure the financial protection of the population in São Paulo city, Brazil, especially targeting modifiable lifestyle choices like promotion of physical activity and reduction of tobacco use.

Pragmatic Carbohydrate Quality Metrics in Relation to Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Front-of-Pack Warning Labels in Grain Foods.

The challenges in the characterization of the nutritional quality of grain foods comprise obstacles to public health actions toward promotion of healthier grain-based foods. The present study investigated how carbohydrate metrics related to glycemic index (GI), glycemic load (GL), and warning labels of grain foods consumed by individuals living in São Paulo, Brazil. Information on intake of grain foods at individual level was obtained using 24 h recalls within a cross-sectional population-based survey conducted in 2015. There were 244 unique grain products reported by individuals in the survey, assessed through four metrics of carbohydrate quality, considering contents per 10 g of total carbohydrate: (1) ≥1 g fiber, (2) ≥1 g fiber and <1 g free sugars, (3) ≥1 g fiber and <2 g free sugars, and (4) ≥1 g fiber, and <2 g free sugars per 1 g of fiber. Outcomes included GI, GL, and inclusion of warning labels proposed by the Brazilian National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA), the Chilean Ministry of Health (1st and 3rd stages), and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). Metrics identified products with lower mean GI (-12.8 to -9.0 [p-values < 0.001]), and GL (-12.5 to -10.3 [p-values < 0.001]). Warning systems showed a certain degree of discrimination between products according to the metrics (p-value < 0.01 each); however, >50% of products with good nutritional quality according to the carbohydrate metrics still would receive warnings. Findings suggest that carbohydrate metrics identified products with lower GI and GL, and current warning labels may not adequately capture overall nutritional quality of grain foods.

[How to improve active mobility in São Paulo, Brazil? Survey with leaders of nongovernmental organizations and public and private sector managers]. / Como melhorar a mobilidade ativa em São Paulo, Brasil? Inquérito com lideranças de organizações não governamentais e com gestores públicos e privados.

This study aimed to describe a quantitative survey conducted with leaders to investigate effective and feasible actions that can be evaluated in computational models to inform policies to promote active mobility based in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. In 2022, an online survey was conducted during the Health Survey in São Paulo (Physical Activity and Environment study), which is monitored by representatives of nongovernmental organizations and public and private sector managers. A questionnaire was elaborated with three questions with 13 alternative answers about actions to promote walking and/or cycling. Leaders should select up to three alternatives based on their potential regarding: (1) effectiveness; (2) feasibility or ease of implementation; and (3) desire to verify tests in computational models to inform policies. The survey was answered by 18 leaders from 16 institutions, comprising 13 (72%) women and 12 (67%) representatives of the third sector, whose average age was 48 years and all had complete higher education. Reducing the speed of motor vehicles was the most cited option in all three questions. Other actions mentioned refer to controlling the traffic of vehicles in central areas, improving pedestrian safety, reducing the distances between homes and places of employment, conducting educational campaigns, and expanding and enhancing structures such as bicycle lanes and sidewalks. The results are relevant to support evidence-based decision-making in public management and to provide subsidies for the development of computational models with a view to promoting active mobility.

Este estudo teve como objetivo descrever um inquérito quantitativo realizado com lideranças para investigar ações efetivas, viáveis e que podem ser testadas em modelos computacionais para informar políticas de promoção da mobilidade ativa, tendo como base a cidade de São Paulo, Brasil. Em 2022, foi realizado um inquérito online no contexto da pesquisa de Atividade Física e Ambiente do Inquérito de Saúde de São Paulo, acompanhada por representantes de organizações não governamentais, gestores públicos e de entidades privadas. Foi elaborado questionário com três perguntas com 13 alternativas de respostas sobre ações para promoção da caminhada ou uso de bicicleta. As lideranças deveriam selecionar até três alternativas a partir de seu potencial em termos de (1) efetividade; (2) viabilidade ou facilidade de implementação; e (3) desejo de realizar testes em modelos computacionais para informar políticas. O inquérito foi respondido por 18 lideranças de 16 instituições, sendo 13 (72%) mulheres e 12 (67%) representantes do terceiro setor, cuja média de idade era 48 anos, todos com nível superior de escolaridade. A redução da velocidade dos veículos motorizados foi a opção mais citada nas três questões. Outras ações citadas referem-se ao controle de circulação de veículos em regiões centrais, à segurança de pedestres, à diminuição das distâncias entre residências e locais de emprego, às campanhas educativas e à ampliação e melhoria de estruturas como ciclovias e calçadas. Os resultados são relevantes para apoiar a tomada de decisões baseadas em evidências na gestão pública e oferecer subsídios para a elaboração de modelos computacionais com vistas à promoção da mobilidade ativa.

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo presentar una encuesta cuantitativa realizada con líderes para investigar las acciones efectivas, viables y que puedan probarse en modelos informáticos para orientar las políticas que promuevan la movilidad activa en la ciudad de São Paulo, Brasil. En 2022 se realizó una encuesta en línea en el contexto de la Encuesta de Salud de São Paulo (Actividad Física y Medio Ambiente), que es monitoreada por representantes de organizaciones no gubernamentales, gestores públicos y entidades privadas. Se elaboró un cuestionario de tres preguntas con 13 respuestas alternativas sobre acciones para promover la caminata o el uso de la bicicleta. Los líderes podían seleccionar hasta tres alternativas en función de su potencial en términos de (1) efectividad; (2) viabilidad o facilidad de implementación; y (3) deseo de verificar las pruebas en modelos informáticos para orientar las políticas. La encuesta fue respondida por 18 líderes de 16 instituciones; de los cuales 13 (72%) eran mujeres y 12 (67%) representaban el tercer sector; la edad promedio de ellos fue de 48 años y todos contaban con educación superior. Reducir la velocidad de los vehículos de motor fue la opción más citada en las tres preguntas. Otras acciones mencionadas se refieren al control de la circulación de vehículos en las regiones centrales, la seguridad de los peatones, la reducción de las distancias entre los hogares y los lugares de trabajo, las campañas educativas y la expansión y mejora de estructuras como carriles bici y aceras. Los resultados son relevantes para apoyar la toma de decisiones basada en la evidencia en la gestión pública y ofrecer subsidios para la elaboración de modelos computacionales destinados a promover la movilidad activa.

Exploring the Nexus between Food Systems and the Global Syndemic among Children under Five Years of Age through the Complex Systems Approach.

The intricate relationship between food systems and health outcomes, known as the food-nutrition-health nexus, intersects with environmental concerns. However, there's still a literature gap in evaluating food systems alongside the global syndemic using the complex systems theory, especially concerning vulnerable populations like children. This research aimed to design a system dynamics model to advance a theoretical understanding of the connections between food systems and the global syndemic, particularly focusing on their impacts on children under five years of age. The framework was developed through a literature review and authors' insights into the relationships between the food, health, and environmental components of the global syndemic among children. The conceptual model presented 17 factors, with 26 connections and 6 feedback loops, categorized into the following 5 groups: environmental, economic, school-related, family-related, and child-related. It delineated and elucidated mechanisms among the components of the global syndemic encompassing being overweight, suffering from undernutrition, and climate change. The findings unveiled potential interactions within food systems and health outcomes. Furthermore, the model integrated elements of the socio-ecological model by incorporating an external layer representing the environment and its natural resources. Consequently, the development of public policies and interventions should encompass environmental considerations to effectively tackle the complex challenges posed by the global syndemic.

Measuring evolution of income-related inequalities in health and health care utilization in selected Latin American and Caribbean countries.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the methodology used to measure and explain income-related inequalities in health and health care utilization over time in selected Latin American and Caribbean countries. METHODS: Data from nationally representative household surveys in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Jamaica, Mexico, and Peru were used to analyze income-related inequalities in health status and health care utilization. Health was measured by self-reported health status, physical limitations, and chronic illness when available. Hospitalization, physician, dentist, preventive, curative, and preventive visits were proxies for health care utilization. Household income was a proxy for socioeconomic status except in Peru, which used household expenditures. Concentration indices were calculated before and after standardization for all dependent variables. Standardized concentration indices are also referred to as horizontal inequity index. Decomposition analysis was used to identify the main determinants of inequality in health care utilization. RESULTS: Results of analysis of the evolution of income-related inequality in health and health care utilization in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Jamaica, Mexico, and Peru are presented in separate articles in this issue. CONCLUSIONS: The methodology used for analysis of equity in all six country research studies attempts not to determine causality but to describe and explain income-related inequalities in health status and health care utilization over time. While this methodology is robust, it is not free of errors. When possible, errors have been identified and corrected.

Analysis of the evolution and determinants of income-related inequalities in the Brazilian health system, 1998 - 2008.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the evolution and determinants of income-related inequalities in the Brazilian health system between 1998 and 2008. METHODS: Data from the National Household Sampling Surveys of 1998, 2003, and 2008 were used to analyze inequalities in health and health care. Health was measured by self-reported health status, physical limitations, and chronic illness. Hospitalization and physician and dentist visits were proxies for health care utilization. Income was a proxy for socioeconomic status. Concentration indices were calculated before and after standardization for all dependent variables. Decomposition analysis was used to identify the main determinants of inequality in health care utilization. RESULTS: In all three periods analyzed, the poor reported worse health status, while the wealthy reported more chronic diseases; health care utilization was pro-rich for medical and dental services. Yet, income-related inequality in health care utilization has been declining. Private health insurance, education, and income are the major contributors to the inequalities identified. CONCLUSIONS: Income-related inequality in the use of medical and dental health care is gradually declining in Brazil. The decline is associated with implementation of pro-equity policies and programs, such as the Community Health Agents Program and the Family Health Program.

Challenges in Assessment of Health Systems Decentralization: The Role of Path Dependence and Choice of Indicators Comment on "The Effects of Health Sector Fiscal Decentralisation on Availability, Accessibility, and Utilisation of Healthcare Services: A Panel Data Analysis".

Optimal resource allocation within national health systems represents the ultimate challenge in diverse countries worldwide. Major part of the literature points that health systems decentralization potentially address the challenge. The present commentary focuses on the debate referring to effects of health systems decentralization, based on the evidence of the study of Arianna Rotulo and colleagues. Studies on the subject emphasize the role of path dependence and the influence of choice of indicators for measurement of effects in the assessment of health systems decentralization. Acknowledging the complexity of the phenomena, the results of the study of Rotulo et al on health system decentralization in Italy are highlighted through the analysis of recent evidence from the literature. The present commentary shows that there are diverse indicators adopted in the literature on the subject, pointing to mixed results, depending on country characteristics and selection of indicators in the analysis. The synthesis of indicators gathered in recent studies also indicate that health system indicators are sensitive to path dependence, thus, requiring additional attention to assumptions of studies on health systems decentralization. Thus, studies should consider the influence of path dependence on organizational practices and institutional structures involved in decentralization processes, in addition to acknowledging that assessments on decentralization vary substantially according to indicators adopted in the analysis, and their links with previous decisions within health systems.

Evolution of global food trade network and its effects on population nutritional status.

Changes in food systems during the last decades fostered the establishment of global food networks based on exchanges between countries with different income levels. Recent studies explored configuration and factors associated with trade networks of specific food items during limited periods; however, there is lack of evidence on evolution of trade networks of foods for human consumption and its potential effects on population nutritional status. We present the evolution of the global trade network of foods for human consumption from 1986 to 2020, according to country income level, and we explore potential effects of country network centrality and globalization processes on the prevalence of overweight and obesity. Results show intensification of international food trade and globalization processes in the period of analysis with implications for population nutritional status worldwide.

An empirically validated framework for measuring patient's acceptability of health care in Multi-Island Micro States.

Measuring health-care acceptability presents conceptual and contextual challenges, particularly in data-poor Multi-Island Micro States (MIMSs). Thus, there has been limited evidence on the acceptability of health care in MIMS and scarce use of acceptability metrics in policy design and health system evaluation. In the present study, we developed and empirically validated a theoretical framework for measuring users' acceptability of health care in a MIMS in the Caribbean. Using a minimum-data approach, we used a synoptic review of health-care literature and consultations with experts and health system stakeholders to define, scope and select constructs for the theoretical framework of health-care acceptability. Empirical validation of the modelled framework was performed using data collected from household expenditure and health-care utilization surveys in Carriacou and Petite Martinique (n = 226), island dependents of Grenada in the Caribbean. Data were used to create health utilization profiles and analyse measurement scales of the health-care acceptability framework using non-linear partial least square structural equation modelling. The modelled framework included 17 items integrating economic and psychosocial concepts, with 1 dependent construct (utilization) and 3 independent constructs (users' perception, experience and knowledge of health facility). Model analysis and validation indicated that the framework was significant, explaining 19% of the variation in health-care acceptability. Users' experience construct was influenced by perception and knowledge of health facility and was the only construct with a significant negative relationship with acceptability. Health-care acceptability declined with increased waiting and travel times and unsuitable opening hours. We conclude that acceptability comprises a complex multidimensional concept, which is highly dependent on various interacting variables and contextual characteristics of the health system. Therefore, policies and actions to improve acceptability should be context specific and focused on evaluating factors infringing health-care acceptability. Routine acceptability and/or satisfaction studies represent baseline evidence towards understanding and integrating acceptability in health-care assessment.