IRAV (FLJ11286), an Interferon-Stimulated Gene with Antiviral Activity against Dengue Virus, Interacts with MOV10.

Dengue virus (DENV) is a member of the genus Flavivirus and can cause severe febrile illness. Here, we show that FLJ11286, which we refer to as IRAV, is induced by DENV in an interferon-dependent manner, displays antiviral activity against DENV, and localizes to the DENV replication complex. IRAV is an RNA binding protein and localizes to cytoplasmic processing bodies (P bodies) in uninfected cells, where it interacts with the MOV10 RISC complex RNA helicase, suggesting a role for IRAV in the processing of viral RNA. After DENV infection, IRAV, along with MOV10 and Xrn1, localizes to the DENV replication complex and associates with DENV proteins. Depletion of IRAV or MOV10 results in an increase in viral RNA. These data serve to characterize an interferon-stimulated gene with antiviral activity against DENV, as well as to propose a mechanism of activity involving the processing of viral RNA. IMPORTANCE Dengue virus, a member of the family Flaviviridae, can result in a life-threatening illness and has a significant impact on global health. Dengue virus has been shown to be particularly sensitive to the effects of type I interferon; however, little is known about the mechanisms by which interferon-stimulated genes function to inhibit viral replication. A better understanding of the interferon-mediated antiviral response to dengue virus may aid in the development of novel therapeutics. Here, we examine the influence of the interferon-stimulated gene IRAV (FLJ11286) on dengue virus replication. We show that IRAV associates with P bodies in uninfected cells and with the dengue virus replication complex after infection. IRAV also interacts with MOV10, depletion of which is associated with increased viral replication. Our results provide insight into a newly identified antiviral gene, as well as broadening our understanding of the innate immune response to dengue virus infection.

Nucleolin interacts with the dengue virus capsid protein and plays a role in formation of infectious virus particles.

Dengue virus (DENV) is a mosquito-transmitted flavivirus that can cause severe disease in humans and is considered a reemerging pathogen of significant importance to public health. The DENV capsid (C) protein functions as a structural component of the infectious virion; however, it may have additional functions in the virus replicative cycle. Here, we show that the DENV C protein interacts and colocalizes with the multifunctional host protein nucleolin (NCL). Furthermore, we demonstrate that this interaction can be disrupted by the addition of an NCL binding aptamer (AS1411). Knockdown of NCL with small interfering RNA (siRNA) or treatment of cells with AS1411 results in a significant reduction of viral titers after DENV infection. Western blotting and quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis revealed no differences in viral RNA or protein levels at early time points postinfection, suggesting a role for NCL in viral morphogenesis. We support this hypothesis by showing that treatment with AS1411 alters the migration characteristics of the viral capsid, as visualized by native electrophoresis. Here, we identify a critical interaction between DENV C protein and NCL that represents a potential new target for the development of antiviral therapeutics.

Structural variants of IFNα preferentially promote antiviral functions.

IFNα, a cytokine with multiple functions in innate and adaptive immunity and a potent inhibitor of HIV, exerts antiviral activity, in part, by enhancing apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme-catalytic polypeptide-like 3 (APOBEC3) family members. Although IFNα therapy is associated with reduced viral burden, this cytokine also mediates immune dysfunction and toxicities. Through detailed mapping of IFNα receptor binding sites, we generated IFNα hybrids and mutants and determined that structural changes in the C-helix alter the ability of IFN to limit retroviral activity. Selective IFNα constructs differentially block HIV replication and their directional magnitude of inhibition correlates with APOBEC3 levels. Importantly, certain mutants exhibited reduced toxicity as reflected by induced indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), suggesting discreet and shared intracellular signaling pathways. Defining IFN structure and function relative to APOBEC and other antiviral genes may enable design of novel IFN-related molecules preserving beneficial antiviral roles while minimizing negative effects.

A novel role for IFN-stimulated gene factor 3II in IFN-γ signaling and induction of antiviral activity in human cells.

Type I (e.g., IFN-α, IFN-ß) and type II IFNs (IFN-γ) have antiviral, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory properties. Both types of IFN signal through the Jak/STAT pathway to elicit antiviral activity, yet IFN-γ is thought to do so only through STAT1 homodimers, whereas type I IFNs activate both STAT1- and STAT2-containing complexes such as IFN-stimulated gene factor 3. In this study, we show that IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 containing unphosphorylated STAT2 (ISGF3(II)) also plays a role in IFN-γ-mediated antiviral activity in humans. Using phosphorylated STAT1 as a marker for IFN signaling, Western blot analysis of IFN-α2a-treated human A549 cells revealed that phospho-STAT1 (Y701) levels peaked at 1 h, decreased by 6 h, and remained at low levels for up to 48 h. Cells treated with IFN-γ showed a biphasic phospho-STAT1 response with an early peak at 1-2 h and a second peak at 15-24 h. Gene expression microarray following IFN-γ treatment for 24 h indicated an induction of antiviral genes that are induced by IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 and associated with a type I IFN response. Induction of these genes by autocrine type I and type III IFN signaling was ruled out using neutralizing Abs to these IFNs in biological assays and by quantitative RT-PCR. Despite the absence of autocrine IFNs, IFN-γ treatment induced formation of ISGF3(II). This novel transcription factor complex binds to IFN-stimulated response element promoter sequences, as shown by chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis of the protein kinase R promoter. STAT2 and IFN regulatory factor 9 knockdown in A549 cells reversed IFN-γ-mediated IFN-stimulated response element induction and antiviral activity, implicating ISGF3(II) formation as a significant component of the cellular response and biological activity of IFN-γ.

A set of aspartyl protease-deficient strains for improved expression of heterologous proteins in Kluyveromyces lactis.

Secretion of recombinant proteins is a common strategy for heterologous protein expression using the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis. However, a common problem is degradation of a target recombinant protein by secretory pathway aspartyl proteases. In this study, we identified five putative pfam00026 aspartyl proteases encoded by the K. lactis genome. A set of selectable marker-free protease deletion mutants was constructed in the prototrophic K. lactis GG799 industrial expression strain background using a PCR-based dominant marker recycling method based on the Aspergillus nidulans acetamidase gene (amdS). Each mutant was assessed for its secretion of protease activity, its health and growth characteristics, and its ability to efficiently produce heterologous proteins. In particular, despite having a longer lag phase and slower growth compared with the other mutants, a Δyps1 mutant demonstrated marked improvement in both the yield and the quality of Gaussia princeps luciferase and the human chimeric interferon Hy3, two proteins that experienced significant proteolysis when secreted from the wild-type parent strain.

Functional Anatomy of the Trimer Apex Reveals Key Hydrophobic Constraints That Maintain the HIV-1 Envelope Spike in a Closed State.

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope trimer maintains a closed, metastable configuration to protect vulnerable epitopes from neutralizing antibodies. Here, we identify key hydrophobic constraints at the trimer apex that function as global stabilizers of the HIV-1 envelope spike configuration. Mutation of individual residues within four hydrophobic clusters that fasten together the V1V2, V3, and C4 domains at the apex of gp120 dramatically increases HIV-1 sensitivity to weak and restricted neutralizing antibodies targeting epitopes that are largely concealed in the prefusion Env spike, consistent with the adoption of a partially open trimer configuration. Conversely, the same mutations decrease the sensitivity to broad and potent neutralizing antibodies that preferentially recognize the closed trimer. Sera from chronically HIV-infected patients neutralize open mutants with enhanced potency, compared to the wild-type virus, suggesting that a large fraction of host-generated antibodies target concealed epitopes. The identification of structural constraints that maintain the HIV-1 envelope in an antibody-protected state may inform the design of a protective vaccine.IMPORTANCE Elucidating the structure and function of the HIV-1 envelope proteins is critical for the design of an effective vaccine. Despite the availability of many high-resolution structures, key functional correlates in the envelope trimer remain undefined. We utilized a combination of structural analysis, in silico energy calculation, mutagenesis, and neutralization profiling to dissect the functional anatomy of the trimer apex, which acts as a global regulator of the HIV-1 spike conformation. We identify four hydrophobic clusters that stabilize the spike in a tightly closed configuration and, thereby, play a critical role in protecting it from the reach of neutralizing antibodies.

A multiclade env-gag VLP mRNA vaccine elicits tier-2 HIV-1-neutralizing antibodies and reduces the risk of heterologous SHIV infection in macaques.

The development of a protective vaccine remains a top priority for the control of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Here, we show that a messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine co-expressing membrane-anchored HIV-1 envelope (Env) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) Gag proteins to generate virus-like particles (VLPs) induces antibodies capable of broad neutralization and reduces the risk of infection in rhesus macaques. In mice, immunization with co-formulated env and gag mRNAs was superior to env mRNA alone in inducing neutralizing antibodies. Macaques were primed with a transmitted-founder clade-B env mRNA lacking the N276 glycan, followed by multiple booster immunizations with glycan-repaired autologous and subsequently bivalent heterologous envs (clades A and C). This regimen was highly immunogenic and elicited neutralizing antibodies against the most prevalent (tier-2) HIV-1 strains accompanied by robust anti-Env CD4+ T cell responses. Vaccinated animals had a 79% per-exposure risk reduction upon repeated low-dose mucosal challenges with heterologous tier-2 simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV AD8). Thus, the multiclade env-gag VLP mRNA platform represents a promising approach for the development of an HIV-1 vaccine.

Combating viral contaminants in CHO cells by engineering innate immunity.

Viral contamination in biopharmaceutical manufacturing can lead to shortages in the supply of critical therapeutics. To facilitate the protection of bioprocesses, we explored the basis for the susceptibility of CHO cells to RNA virus infection. Upon infection with certain ssRNA and dsRNA viruses, CHO cells fail to generate a significant interferon (IFN) response. Nonetheless, the downstream machinery for generating IFN responses and its antiviral activity is intact in these cells: treatment of cells with exogenously-added type I IFN or poly I:C prior to infection limited the cytopathic effect from Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV), and Reovirus-3 virus (Reo-3) in a STAT1-dependent manner. To harness the intrinsic antiviral mechanism, we used RNA-Seq to identify two upstream repressors of STAT1: Gfi1 and Trim24. By knocking out these genes, the engineered CHO cells exhibited activation of cellular immune responses and increased resistance to the RNA viruses tested. Thus, omics-guided engineering of mammalian cell culture can be deployed to increase safety in biotherapeutic protein production among many other biomedical applications.

Structural Constraints at the Trimer Apex Stabilize the HIV-1 Envelope in a Closed, Antibody-Protected Conformation.

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope (Env) trimer evades antibody recognition by adopting a closed prefusion conformation. Here, we show that two conserved tyrosines (Y173, Y177) within the second variable (V2) loop of the gp120 Env glycoprotein are key regulators of the closed, antibody-protected state of the trimer by establishing intramolecular interaction with the base of the third variable (V3) loop. Mutation of Y177 and/or Y173 to phenylalanine or alanine dramatically altered the susceptibility of diverse HIV-1 strains to neutralization, increasing sensitivity to weakly and nonneutralizing antibodies directed against diverse Env regions, consistent with the adoption of an open trimer configuration. Conversely, potent broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) against different supersites of HIV-1 vulnerability exhibited reduced potency against V2 loop tyrosine mutants, consistent with their preferential targeting of the closed trimer. Mutation of V3 loop residues predicted to interact with the V2 loop tyrosines yielded a similar neutralization phenotype. Sera from chronically HIV-1-infected patients contained very high titers of antibodies capable of neutralizing V2 loop tyrosine mutants but not wild-type viruses, indicating that the bulk of antibodies produced in infected hosts are unable to penetrate the protective shield of the closed trimer. These results identify the tyrosine-mediated V2-V3 loop complex at the trimer apex as a key structural constraint that facilitates HIV-1 evasion from the bulk of host antibodies.IMPORTANCE The extraordinary ability of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) to evade host immunity represents a major obstacle to the development of a protective vaccine. Thus, elucidating the mechanisms whereby HIV-1 protects its external envelope (Env), which is the sole target of virus-neutralizing antibodies, is an essential step toward vaccine design. We identified a key structural element that maintains the HIV-1 Env trimer in a closed, antibody-resistant conformation. A major role is played by two conserved tyrosines at the apex of the Env spike, whose mutation causes a global opening of the trimer structure, exposing multiple concealed targets for neutralizing antibodies. We also found that HIV-infected individuals produce very large amounts of antibodies that neutralize the open Env form; however, the bulk of these antibodies are unable to penetrate the tight defensive shield of the native virus. This work may help to devise new strategies to overcome the viral defensive mechanisms and facilitate the development of an effective HIV-1 vaccine.

Binding Characteristics of IFN-alpha Subvariants to IFNAR2-EC and Influence of the 6-Histidine Tag.

The expression, purification, detection, and assay of recombinant proteins have been made more convenient and rapid by the use of small affinity tags. To facilitate the purification of interferon-alpha2c (IFN-alpha2c) by metal chelate affinity chromatography, N-terminal 6-histidine tag was introduced via genetic manipulation. Two preparations of IFN material were purified; one contained IFN-alpha2c with the 6-histidine tag, and the other contained IFN-alpha2c without the 6-histidine tag. The antigenic properties of the human IFN-alpha2c subvariant with and without the 6-histidine tag, as well as the effects of the N-terminal 6-histidine tag on IFN-alpha2c interaction with the extracellular domain of human IFN-alpha receptor chain 2 (IFNAR2-EC) were examined. For the purposes of this study, IFNs were characterized by Western blots with anti-IFN monoclonal antibodies (mAb) and bioassays. Immunoblot analyses showed differences between IFN-alpha2c-6-histidine tag and IFN-alpha2a, b, c in their interaction with IFNAR2-EC. We also observed differences between IFN-alpha2c-6-histidine tag and IFN-alpha2a, b, c in bioactivities. This study is the first report that shows that an N-terminal 6-histidine tag on IFN-alpha2c can affect its interaction with receptor and cause a different bioactivity.

Amino acid substitutions in loop BC and helix C affect antigenic properties of helix D in hybrid IFN-alpha21a/alpha2c molecules.

We compared the antigenic properties of human interferon-alpha2c (IFN-alpha2c), IFN-alpha21a, hybrids IFN-alpha21a/alpha2c, and their mutants, using a panel of 27 anti-IFN-alpha1, anti-IFN-alpha2, and anti-IFN-alpha8/1/8 monoclonal antibodies (mAb). After immunoanalysis by ELISA, we found parental IFN-alpha2c and IFN-alpha21a to be antigenically distinct. Lack of reactivity of anti-IFN-alpha1 mAb with IFN-alpha21a indicated an antigenic distinction between subtypes alpha1 and alpha21a. The antigenic properties of hybrid IFNs consisting of the N-terminal portion (1-75) of IFN-alpha21a and the C-terminal portion (76-166) of IFN-alpha2c were analyzed with mAb recognizing defined regions of IFN-alpha2c, IFN-alpha1, and IFN-alpha8/1/8. We found that extending the sequence of IFN-alpha21a up to position 95 in hybrid molecule decreased the immunoreactivity of mAb specific for the antigenic structure formed by residues --112-132-- (helix D) of IFN-alpha2c. Inserting the sequence 76-81 (loop BC) of IFN-alpha2c into the sequence of 1-95 of IFN-alpha21a restored the reactivity of anti-IFN-alpha2c mAb. Some amino acid substitutions at positions 86 and 90 (helix C) of hybrid IFN-alpha21a/alpha2c also affected the immunoreactivity of C-terminal-specific mAb, which recognize helix D, but did not influence the structure of C-terminus of IFN (aa 151-165). Changes in the structure of constructs affected not only their antiproliferative activity but also their antiviral activity on human cells.

Incidence of autoantibodies against type I and type II interferons in a cohort of systemic lupus erythematosus patients in Slovakia.

Autoantibodies against interferon (IFN) can be found in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, detailed information about the occurrence of type-specific antihuman IFN antibodies is not available. In this study, we investigated the incidence of autoantibodies specifically recognizing various type I IFNs (alpha1, alpha2, beta, omega) and type II IFN (gamma). Sera from 100 SLE patients were screened for the presence of IFN-binding antibodies by ELISA, using various types of recombinant IFNs as antigen. On the whole, autoantibodies against type I or type II or both IFNs were detected in 45% (45 of 100) of the serum samples investigated. More than half (56%) of the positive samples (25 of 45) contained antibodies specific only for type I IFNs, and 36% of positive sera (16 of 45) had autoantibodies only against type II IFN. Antibodies against both type I and type II IFNs were detected in 8% (4 of 45) of the positive samples. Among autoantibodies to type I IFNs, the most abundant were those against the type IFN-omega (15%) and the subtype IFN-alpha2 (11%). Autoantibodies binding subtype IFN-alpha1 and type IFN-beta were detected at a relatively lower incidence of about 3%-4%. The highest occurrence (20%) showed autoantibodies to the proinflammatory cytokine, IFN-gamma. We did not find any correlation between the production of autoantibodies against particular IFN species and an antibody response to other IFN species. We further observed that 84% (38 of 45) of the positive sera bound only one IFN species, and 13% (6 of 45) of positive samples contained antibodies against two IFN species of five different combinations (alpha1/beta, alpha1/omega, alpha2/omega, alpha2/gamma, omega/gamma). One sample uniquely showed reactivity with three IFN species (alpha2/omega/gamma). Our findings suggest that formation of autoantibodies could reflect humoral immune responses to increased spontaneous production of the respective IFN species in SLE patients.

New function of type I IFN: induction of autophagy.

Autophagy is a highly conserved cellular process responsible for recycling of intracellular material. It is induced by different stress signals, including starvation, cytokines, and pathogens. Type I interferons (IFN) are proteins with pleiotropic functions, such as antiviral, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory activities. Several recent studies showed type I IFN-induced autophagy in multiple cancer cell lines as evidenced by autophagic markers, for example, the conversion of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta (MAP1LC3B, also known as LC3-I) to LC3-II and the formation of autophagosomes by electron microscopy. In addition, studies suggest the involvement of Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K)/v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog (AKT) and mechanistic target of rapamycin, serine/threonine kinase (mTOR) pathways in the induction of autophagy. This review highlights a new function of type I IFN as an inducer of autophagy. This new function of type I IFN may play an important role in viral clearance, antigen presentation, inhibition of proliferation, as well as a positive feedback loop for the production of type I IFN.

Type I interferons induce autophagy in certain human cancer cell lines.

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved cellular recycling mechanism that occurs at a basal level in all cells. It can be further induced by various stimuli including starvation, hypoxia, and treatment with cytokines such as IFNG/IFNγ and TGFB/TGFß. Type I IFNs are proteins that induce an antiviral state in cells. They also have antiproliferative, proapoptotic and immunomodulatory activities. We investigated whether type I IFN can also induce autophagy in multiple human cell lines. We found that treatment with IFNA2c/IFNα2c and IFNB/IFNß induces autophagy by 24 h in Daudi B cells, as indicated by an increase of autophagy markers MAP1LC3-II, ATG12-ATG5 complexes, and a decrease of SQSTM1 expression. An increase of MAP1LC3-II was also detected 48 h post-IFNA2c treatment in HeLa S3, MDA-MB-231, T98G and A549 cell lines. The presence of autophagosomes in selected cell lines exposed to type I IFN was confirmed by electron microscopy analysis. Increased expression of autophagy markers correlated with inhibition of MTORC1 in Daudi cells, as well as inhibition of cancer cell proliferation and changes in cell cycle progression. Concomitant blockade of either MTOR or PI3K-AKT signaling in Daudi and T98G cells treated with IFNA2c increased the level of MAP1LC3-II, indicating that the PI3K-AKT-MTORC1 signaling pathway may modulate IFN-induced autophagy in these cells. Taken together, our findings demonstrated a novel function of type I IFN as an inducer of autophagy in multiple cell lines.

Near eradication of clinically relevant concentrations of human tumor cells by interferon-activated monocytes in vitro.

We have previously reported that low concentrations of interferon (IFN)-activated monocytes exert near-eradicative cytocidal activity against low concentrations of several human tumor cells in vitro. In the present study, we examined 7 human tumor cell lines and 3 diploid lines in the presence or absence of 10 ng/mL IFNα2a and monocytes. The results confirmed strong cytocidal activity against 4 of 7 tumor lines but none against 3 diploid lines. To model larger in vivo tumors, we increased the target cell concentration and determined the concentration of IFNα2a and monocytes, required for cell death. We found that increasing the tumor cell concentration from 10- to 100-fold (10(5) cells/well) required an increase in the concentration of IFNs by over 100-fold and monocytes by 10-fold. High concentrations of monocytes could sometimes kill tumor or diploid cells in the absence of IFN. We may conclude that killing of high concentrations of tumor or diploid cells required high concentrations of monocytes that could sometimes kill in the absence of IFN. Thus, high concentrations of tumor cells required high concentrations of IFN and monocytes to cause near eradication of tumor cells. These findings may have clinical implications.

IRF9 is a key factor for eliciting the antiproliferative activity of IFN-alpha.

A number of tumors are still resistant to the antiproliferative activity of human interferon (IFN)-alpha. The Janus kinases/Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (JAK-STAT) pathway plays an important role in initial IFN signaling. To enhance the antiproliferative activity of IFN-alpha, it is important to elucidate which factors in the JAK-STAT pathway play a key role in eliciting this activity. In human ovarian adenocarcinoma OVCAR3 cells sensitive to both IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma, only IFN regulatory factor 9 (IRF9)-RNA interference (RNAi) completely inhibited the antiproliferative activity of IFN-alpha among the intracellular JAK-STAT pathway factors. Conversely, Stat1-RNAi did not inhibit the antiproliferative activity of IFN-alpha, whereas it partially inhibited that of IFN-gamma. As a cell death pathway, it is reported that tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) induces apoptosis through TRAIL-receptor (R) 1 and TRAIL-R2. In IFN-alpha-treated OVCAR3 cells, IRF9-RNAi inhibited transcription of TRAIL whereas Stat1-RNAi did not, suggesting that the transcription of TRAIL induced by IFN-alpha predominantly required IRF9. Furthermore, IFN-stimulated response element-like motifs of TRAIL bound to IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3) complex after IFN-alpha treatment. Subsequently, TRAIL-R2-RNAi inhibited both antiproliferative activities of IFN-alpha and TRAIL, suggesting that TRAIL-R2 mediated both IFN-alpha and TRAIL signals to elicit their antiproliferative activities. Finally, IRF9 overexpression facilitated IFN-alpha-induced apoptosis in T98G (human glioblastoma multiforme) cells, which were resistant to IFN-alpha. Thus, this study suggests that IRF9 is the key factor for eliciting the antiproliferative activity of IFN-alpha and TRAIL may be one of the potential mediators.

Two interferons alpha influence each other during their interaction with the extracellular domain of human type interferon receptor subunit 2.

The interaction between two human interferons alpha (IFN-alphas) and the extracellular (EC) domain of human type I IFN receptor subunit 2 (IFNAR2) was analyzed. Previous experiments using Daudi cells showed that IFN-alpha21b and some IFN-alpha hybrids (made from IFN-alpha2c and 21b) competed poorly for the IFN-alpha2b binding site. This study examined the causes of the poor competition between these IFN-alphas. IFN-alpha2c and the IFN hybrid CM3 {IFN-alpha21b(1-75)(81-95)/IFN-alpha2c(76-80) (96-166), Y86K} were selected for this study based on their cell binding and biological properties. Competitive binding ELISA, native electrophoresis followed by Western blot, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), surface plasmon resonance biosensor (SPR) analysis, as well as neutralization of antiproliferative activities on Daudi cells in the presence of soluble IFNAR2-EC show evidence that each of the described IFN-alpha subtypes affected the binding of the other IFN-alpha to IFNAR2-EC by affecting the stability of the complex, i.e., dissociation of the complex. Moreover, native electrophoresis with different IFNAR2-EC mutants showed that IFN-alpha2c and CM3 utilize different amino acids in the binding domain of IFNAR2-EC. In addition to that, analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) revealed differences in the oligomeric state of the two studied interferons. Our results demonstrated that two individual IFN-alphas interact differentially with IFNAR2-EC and influence each other during this interaction. This study contributes to the understanding of the mutual interaction between multiple IFN-alpha subtypes during the competition for binding to the receptor.

Human interferons alpha, beta and omega.

Type I interferons (IFNs), IFN-alpha, IFN-beta, IFN-omega, IFN-delta and IFN-tau are a family of structurally related, species-specific proteins found only in vertebrates. They exhibit a variety of biological functions, including antiviral, antiproliferative, immunomodulatory and developmental activities. Human Type I IFNs interact with the human IFN alpha receptor (IFNAR), which is composed of two identified subunits (IFNAR-1 and IFNAR-2). The interaction of IFN-alpha/beta with its receptor components results in the activation of a number of signaling pathways. The regulation of specific genes and proteins contributes to the numerous biological functions of Type I IFNs.