Molecular and functional analysis of intragenic SMN1 mutations in patients with spinal muscular atrophy.

The autosomal recessive spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a neuromuscular disease and frequent cause of early death in childhood, is caused in 96% of patients by homozygous absence of the survival motor neuron gene (SMN1). The severity of the disease is mainly determined by the copy number of SMN2, a copy gene which predominantly produces exon 7-skipped transcripts and only low amount of full-length transcripts that encode for a protein identical to SMN1. Only about 4% of SMA patients bear one SMN1 copy with an intragenic mutation. A comprehensive molecular genetic analysis of 34 SMA patients who carry one SMN1 gene is presented, including 18 that were previously published. Haplotype analysis with the microsatellite markers Ag1-CA and C212 in these SMA families turned out to be a reliable accessory method in predicting known SMN1 mutations in SMA patients carrying one SMN1 copy. Five novel missense mutations were identified that are localized in: exon 2a c.88G>A (p.D30N) and c.131A>T (p.D44V); exon 3 c.283G>C (p.G95R) and c.332C>G (p.A111G); and exon 6 c.784A>G (p.S262G), respectively. The survival motor neuron (SMN) protein has been shown to be a component of a large complex (termed the SMN complex) that promotes the formation of spliceosomal U small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs). Within this complex, SMN forms oligomers and directly interacts via its N-terminus with SMN-interacting protein 1 (SIP1) and via its central Tudor domain with spliceosomal (Sm) proteins. We performed in vitro interaction studies to test whether SMA-causing missense mutations identified in this study interfere with the reported interactions of SMN. Our results show that mutations p.G95R and p.A111G reduce SMN binding to Sm proteins, further confirming the previous finding that the Tudor domain is the essential binding site of SMN to Sm-proteins. However, all mutations, including those in exon 2a, a region shown to be important for the binding of SMN to SIP1, do not disturb the interaction of SMN to SIP1.

Isotope or mass encoding of combinatorial libraries.

BACKGROUND: Combinatorial chemistry using solid-phase synthesis is a rapidly developing technology that can result in a significant reduction in the time required to find and optimize lead compounds. The application of this approach to traditional medicinal chemistry has led to the construction of libraries of small organic molecules on resin beads. A major difficulty in developing large combinatorial libraries is the lack of a facile encoding and decoding methodology to identify active compounds. RESULTS: Several encoding schemes are described which use the ability of mass spectrometry to ascertain isotopic distributions. Molecular tags are attached to resin beads in parallel or on the linker used for chemical library synthesis. The tags are encoded via a controlled ratio of a number of stable isotopes on the tagging molecules, and range from a single to a complex isotopic distribution. CONCLUSIONS: A novel coding scheme is described that is useful for the generation of large encoded combinatorial libraries. The code can be cleaved after assay and analyzed by mass spectrometry in an automated fashion. An important element of the combinatorial discovery process is the ability to extract the structure-activity relationship (SAR) information made available by library screening. The speed and sensitivity of the mass-encoding scheme has the potential to determine the full SAR for a given library.

Phosphodiesterase type IV inhibition. Structure-activity relationships of 1,3-disubstituted pyrrolidines.

The synthesis of 1,3-disubstituted pyrrolidines 2 and their activities as type IV phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors are described. Various groups were appended to the nitrogen of the pyrrolidine nucleus to enable structure-activity relationships to be assessed. Groups which render the pyrrolidine nitrogen of 2 nonbasic yielded potent PDE-IV inhibitors. Analogs of amides, carbamates, and ureas of 2 were synthesized to determine the effects that substitution on these functional groups had on PDE-IV inhibitor potency. The structural requirements for PDE-IV inhibitor potency differed among the three classes. A representative amide, carbamate, and urea (2c,d,h) were shown to be > 50-fold selective for inhibiting PDE-IV versus representative PDEs from families I-III and V. Furthermore, these same three inhibitors demonstrated potent functional activity (IC50 < 1 microM) by inhibiting tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) release from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated purified human peripheral blood monocytes and mouse peritoneal macrophages. These compounds were also tested orally in LPS-injected mice and demonstrated dose-dependent inhibition of serum TNF-alpha levels.

Design and synthesis of conformationally constrained analogues of 4-(3-butoxy-4-methoxybenzyl)imidazolidin-2-one (Ro 20-1724) as potent inhibitors of cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase.

The synthesis and biological evaluation of cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase (PDE IV) inhibitors is described. The PDE IV inhibitor 4-(3-butoxy-4-methoxybenzyl)imidazolidin-2-one (Ro 20-1724, 2) was used as a template from which to design a set of rigid oxazolidinones, imidazolidinones, and pyrrolizidinones that mimic Ro 20-1724 but differ in the orientation of the carbonyl group. The endo isomer of each of these heterocycles was more potent than the exo isomer in an enzyme inhibition assay and a cellular assay, which measured TNF alpha secretion from activated human peripheral blood monocytes (HPBM). Imidazolidinone 4a inhibited human PDE IV with a Ki of 27 nM and TNF alpha secretion from HPBM with an IC50 of 290 nM. By comparison, Ro 20-1724 is significantly less active in these assays with activities of 1930 and 1800nM, respectively.

Structural features and biochemical properties of TNF-alpha converting enzyme (TACE).

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha is a potent cytokine, secreted primarily by activated monocytes and macrophages, that possesses a broad range of immunomodulating properties. Involvement of this cytokine has been validated in disease states such as arthritis and Crohn's disease and implicated in diverse neuroimmunological pathologies such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimers and stroke. TNF-alpha is initially synthesized as a 26 kDa precursor molecule that is subsequently processed to the mature form by cleavage of the Ala76 Val77 bond. The 17 kDa carboxy-terminal protein is then secreted to function in a paracrine manner. The enzyme that processes precursor TNF-alpha has previously been identified as a microsomal metalloprotease called TNF-alpha converting enzyme (TACE). We have now purified and partially cloned the enzyme. TACE represents a novel target for therapeutic intervention in a variety of inflammatory and neuroimmunological diseases.

Ratio encoding combinatorial libraries with stable isotopes and their utility in pharmaceutical research.

Combinatorial libraries are an important tool for lead discovery in the pharmaceutical industry. Advances in high throughput screening coupled with combinatorial chemistry can significantly reduce the time to find lead compounds. A major difficulty in developing large combinatorial libraries is the ability to identify active compounds. This paper describes a rapid and sensitive encoding/decoding methodology that utilizes stable isotopes and mass spectrometry. The ability of mass spectrometry to precisely determine the intensity of isotopic abundances provides a unique encoding strategy employing synthetically generated ratios of stable isotopes in a compound as the code. The application of ratio encoding is demonstrated using peptoid and imidazole chemistries. Supporting data demonstrate that the incorporation of one or more stable isotopes using unique-predetermined ratios can encode chemical libraries. In addition, the presence of a unique isotopic pattern in a ligand can facilitate the pharmacokinetic analysis. Isotope incorporation into a compound and subsequently into its metabolites reliably distinguishes products from other molecules in the mass spectrum. This is illustrated by metabolic analyses of peptoid and imidazole compounds.

Cloning of a disintegrin metalloproteinase that processes precursor tumour-necrosis factor-alpha.

Tumour-necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is a cytokine that contributes to a variety of inflammatory disease states. The protein exists as a membrane-bound precursor of relative molecular mass 26K which can be processed by a TNF-alpha-converting enzyme (TACE), to generate secreted 17K mature TNF-alpha. We have purified TACE and cloned its complementary DNA. TACE is a membrane-bound disintegrin metalloproteinase. Structural comparisons with other disintegrin-containing enzymes indicate that TACE is unique, with noteable sequence identity to MADM, an enzyme implicated in myelin degradation, and to KUZ, a Drosophila homologue of MADM important for neuronal development. The expression of recombinant TACE (rTACE) results in the production of functional enzyme that correctly processes precursor TNF-alpha to the mature form. The rTACE provides a readily available source of enzyme to help in the search for new anti-inflammatory agents that target the final processing stage of TNF-alpha production.