Phosphorylation of the axial element protein Hop1 by Mec1/Tel1 ensures meiotic interhomolog recombination.

An essential feature of meiosis is interhomolog recombination whereby a significant fraction of the programmed meiotic double-strand breaks (DSBs) is repaired using an intact homologous non-sister chromatid rather than a sister. Involvement of Mec1 and Tel1, the budding yeast homologs of the mammalian ATR and ATM kinases, in meiotic interhomlog bias has been implicated, but the mechanism remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate that Mec1 and Tel1 promote meiotic interhomolog recombination by targeting the axial element protein Hop1. Without Mec1/Tel1 phosphorylation of Hop1, meiotic DSBs are rapidly repaired via a Dmc1-independent intersister repair pathway, resulting in diminished interhomolog crossing-over leading to spore lethality. We find that Mec1/Tel1-mediated phosphorylation of Hop1 is required for activation of Mek1, a meiotic paralogue of the DNA-damage effector kinase, Rad53p/CHK2. Thus, Hop1 is a meiosis-specific adaptor protein of the Mec1/Tel1 signaling pathway that ensures interhomolog recombination by preventing Dmc1-independent repair of meiotic DSBs.

Regulation of cell cycle-specific gene expression in fission yeast by the Cdc14p-like phosphatase Clp1p.

Regulated gene expression makes an important contribution to cell cycle control mechanisms. In fission yeast, a group of genes is coordinately expressed during a late stage of the cell cycle (M phase and cytokinesis) that is controlled by common cis-acting promoter motifs named pombe cell cycle boxes (PCBs), which are bound by a trans-acting transcription factor complex, PCB binding factor (PBF). PBF contains at least three transcription factors, a MADS box protein Mbx1p and two forkhead transcription factors, Sep1p and Fkh2p. Here we show that the fission yeast Cdc14p-like phosphatase Clp1p (Flp1p) controls M-G1 specific gene expression through PBF. Clp1p binds in vivo both to Mbx1p, a MADS box-like transcription factor, and to the promoters of genes transcribed at this cell cycle time. Because Clp1p dephosphorylates Mbx1p in vitro, and is required for Mbx1p cell cycle-specific dephosphorylation in vivo, our observations suggest that Clp1p controls cell cycle-specific gene expression through binding to and dephosphorylating Mbx1p.

Polo kinase controls cell-cycle-dependent transcription by targeting a coactivator protein.

Polo kinases have crucial conserved functions in controlling the eukaryotic cell cycle through orchestrating several events during mitosis. An essential element of cell cycle control is exerted by altering the expression of key regulators. Here we show an important function for the polo kinase Cdc5p in controlling cell-cycle-dependent gene expression that is crucial for the execution of mitosis in the model eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In particular, we find that Cdc5p is temporally recruited to promoters of the cell-cycle-regulated CLB2 gene cluster, where it targets the Mcm1p-Fkh2p-Ndd1p transcription factor complex, through direct phosphorylation of the coactivator protein Ndd1p. This phosphorylation event is required for the normal temporal expression of cell-cycle-regulated genes such as CLB2 and SWI5 in G2/M phases. Furthermore, severe defects in cell division occur in the absence of Cdc5p-mediated phosphorylation of Ndd1p. Thus, polo kinase is required for the production of key mitotic regulators, in addition to previously defined roles in controlling other mitotic events.

Cell cycle-regulated transcription through the FHA domain of Fkh2p and the coactivator Ndd1p.

Recent studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by using global approaches have significantly enhanced our knowledge of the components involved in the transcriptional regulation of the cell cycle. The Mcm1p-Fkh2p complex, in combination with the coactivator Ndd1p, plays an important role in the cell cycle-dependent expression of the CLB2 gene cluster during the G2 and M phases ([4-7]; see [8-10]for reviews). Fkh2p is phosphorylated in a cell cycle-dependent manner, and peak phosphorylation occurs coincidentally with maximal expression of Mcm1p-Fkh2p-dependent gene expression. However, the mechanism by which this complex is activated in a cell cycle-dependent manner is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the forkhead-associated (FHA) domain of Fkh2p directs cell cycle-regulated transcription and that the activity of this domain is dependent on the coactivator Ndd1p. Ndd1p was found to be phosphorylated in a cell cycle-dependent manner by Cdc28p-Clb2p, and, importantly, this phosphorylation event promotes interactions between Ndd1p and the FHA domain of Fkh2p. Furthermore, mutation of the FHA domain blocks these phosphorylation-dependent interactions and abolishes transcriptional activity. Our data therefore link the transcriptional activity of the FHA domain with cell cycle-dependent phosphorylation of the coactivator Ndd1p and reveal a mechanism that permits precise temporal activation of the Mcm1p-Fkh2p complex.

A Saccharomyces cerevisiae autoselection system for optimised recombinant protein expression.

Yeasts are attractive organisms for recombinant protein production. They combine highly developed genetic systems and ease of use with reductions in time and costs. We describe an autoselection system for recombinant protein expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae which increases yields 5-10-fold compared to conditional selection for expression plasmids. Multicopy expression plasmids encoding essential MOB1 or CDC28 genes are absolutely necessary for the viability of host cells with mob1 or cdc28 deletions in their genomes. Such plasmids are stably maintained, even in rich medium, so optimising biomass production and yields of recombinant protein. Plasmid copy numbers are also increased by limiting selective MOB1 and CDC28 gene expression prior to induction. GST- or 6His-tagged proteins are produced for affinity purification and are expressed from a conditional GAL1-10 promoter to avoid potentially toxic effects of recombinant proteins on growth. Autoselection systems for expressing single or pairs of proteins are described. We demonstrate the versatility of this system by expressing proteins from a number of organisms and include several large and problematic products. The in vitro reconstruction of a step in mitotic regulation shows how this expression system can be successfully applied to the detailed analysis of complex metabolic pathways.

Clb6/Cdc28 and Cdc14 regulate phosphorylation status and cellular localization of Swi6.

Nuclear export of the transcription factor Swi6 during the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell cycle is known to require phosphorylation of the Swi6 serine 160 residue. We show that Clb6/Cdc28 kinase is required for this nuclear export. Furthermore, Cdc28 combined with the S-phase cyclin Clb6 specifically phosphorylates serine 160 of Swi6 in vitro. Nuclear import of Swi6 occurs concomitantly with dephosphorylation of serine 160 in late M phase. We show that Cdc14 phosphatase, the principal effector of the mitotic exit network, can trigger nuclear import of Swi6 in vivo and that Cdc14 dephosphorylates Swi6 at serine 160 in vitro. Taken together, these observations show how Swi6 dephosphorylation and phosphorylation are integrated into changes of Cdc28 activity governing entry and exit from the G1 phase of the cell cycle.

Phosphorylation of Lte1 by Cdk prevents polarized growth during mitotic arrest in S. cerevisiae.

Lte1 is known as a regulator of mitotic progression in budding yeast. Here we demonstrate phosphorylation-dependent inhibition of polarized bud growth during G2/M by Lte1. Cla4 activity first localizes Lte1 to the polarity cap and thus specifically to the bud. This localization is a prerequisite for subsequent Clb-Cdk-dependent phosphorylation of Lte1 and its relocalization to the entire bud cortex. There, Lte1 interferes with activation of the small GTPases, Ras and Bud1. The inhibition of Bud1 prevents untimely polarization until mitosis is completed and Cdc14 phosphatase is released. Inhibition of Bud1 and Ras depends on Lte1's GEF-like domain, which unexpectedly inhibits these small G proteins. Thus, Lte1 has dual functions for regulation of mitotic progression: it both induces mitotic exit and prevents polarized growth during mitotic arrest, thereby coupling cell cycle progression and morphological development.

Lte1 contributes to Bfa1 localization rather than stimulating nucleotide exchange by Tem1.

Lte1 is a mitotic regulator long envisaged as a guanosine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for Tem1, the small guanosine triphosphatase governing activity of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitotic exit network. We demonstrate that this model requires reevaluation. No GEF activity was detectable in vitro, and mutational analysis of Lte1's putative GEF domain indicated that Lte1 activity relies on interaction with Ras for localization at the bud cortex rather than providing nucleotide exchange. Instead, we found that Lte1 can determine the subcellular localization of Bfa1 at spindle pole bodies (SPBs). Under conditions in which Lte1 is essential, Lte1 promoted the loss of Bfa1 from the maternal SPB. Moreover, in cells with a misaligned spindle, mislocalization of Lte1 in the mother cell promoted loss of Bfa1 from one SPB and allowed bypass of the spindle position checkpoint. We observed that lte1 mutants display aberrant localization of the polarity cap, which is the organizer of the actin cytoskeleton. We propose that Lte1's role in cell polarization underlies its contribution to mitotic regulation.

Regulation of gene expression during M-G1-phase in fission yeast through Plo1p and forkhead transcription factors.

In fission yeast the expression of several genes during M-G1 phase is controlled by binding of the PCB binding factor (PBF) transcription factor complex to Pombe cell cycle box (PCB) promoter motifs. Three components of PBF have been identified, including two forkhead-like proteins Sep1p and Fkh2p, and a MADS-box-like protein, Mbx1p. Here, we examine how PBF is controlled and reveal a role for the Polo kinase Plo1p. plo1(+) shows genetic interactions with sep1(+), fkh2(+) and mbx1(+), and overexpression of a kinase-domain mutant of plo1 abolishes M-G1-phase transcription. Plo1p binds to and directly phosphorylates Mbx1p, the first time a Polo kinase has been shown to phosphorylate a MADS box protein in any organism. Fkh2p and Sep1p interact in vivo and in vitro, and Fkh2p, Sep1p and Plo1p contact PCB promoters in vivo. However, strikingly, both Fkh2p and Plo1p bind to PCB promoters only when PCB-controlled genes are not expressed during S- and G2-phase, whereas by contrast Sep1p contacts PCBs coincident with M-G1-phase transcription. Thus, Plo1p, Fkh2p and Sep1p control M-G1-phase gene transcription through a combination of phosphorylation and cell-cycle-specific DNA binding to PCBs.

In vitro regulation of budding yeast Bfa1/Bub2 GAP activity by Cdc5.

The Cdc5 protein of budding yeast is a polo-like kinase that has multiple roles in mitosis including control of the mitotic exit network (MEN). MEN activity brings about loss of mitotic kinase activity so that the mitotic spindle is disassembled and cytokinesis can proceed. Activity of the MEN is regulated by a small GTPase, Tem1, which in turn is controlled by a two-component GTPase-activating protein (GAP) formed by Bfa1 and Bub2. Bfa1 has been identified as a regulatory target of Cdc5 but there are conflicting deductions from indirect in vivo assays as to whether phosphorylation inhibits or stimulates Bfa1 activity. To resolve this question, we have used direct in vitro assays to observe the effects of phosphorylation on Bfa1 activity. We show that when Bfa1 is phosphorylated by Cdc5, its GAP activity with Bub2 is inhibited although its ability to interact with Tem1 is unaffected. Thus, in vivo inactivation of Bfa1-Bub2 by Cdc5 would have a positive regulatory effect by increasing levels of Tem1-GTP so stimulating exit from mitosis.

Control of mitotic exit in budding yeast. In vitro regulation of Tem1 GTPase by Bub2 and Bfa1.

The elimination of mitotic kinase activity at the end of mitosis is essential for progression to the next stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle. In budding yeast, this process is controlled by a regulatory cascade called the mitotic exit network. Extensive genetic data indicate that mitotic exit network activity is determined by a GTP-binding protein, Tem1, and its putative regulators, Bub2, Bfa1, and Lte1. Here we describe the purification and in vitro activities of Tem1, Bub2, and Bfa1. We describe the nucleotide binding properties of Tem1 and characterize its intrinsic GTPase activity. The combination of Bfa1 and Bub2 acts as a two-component GTPase-activating protein for Tem1. In the absence of Bub2, Bfa1 inhibits the GTPase and GTP exchange activities of Tem1. This inhibition is elicited by either the N- or C-terminal regions of Bfa1, which also retain some ability to co-activate GTPase activity in the presence of Bub2. Although the C-terminal region of Bfa1 binds to Bub2, no interaction of the N-terminal half of Bfa1 with Bub2 was detected despite their combined GAP activity. Therefore, we propose that Bfa1 acts both as an adaptor to connect Bub2 and Tem1 and as an allosteric effector that facilitates this interaction.