Make No Apologies: Fear of Negative Evaluation, Depressive Symptoms, and the Mediating Role of Accounting for COVID-Safe Behavior Amongst People at High-Risk for Severe Illness.

With the goal of understanding unique and important threats to the mental health of people who are especially vulnerable to severe illness as a result of COVID-19, this study investigated associations between such individuals' fear of negative evaluation, tendency to "account for" practicing COVID-safe behaviors, and depressive symptoms. Grounded in perspectives on self-presentation, normative influence, and cognitive dissonance, we hypothesized that fear of negative evaluation would relate positively to accounting for COVID-safe behaviors, which, in turn, would associate positively with increased depressive symptoms. The results showed that increased fear of negative evaluation predicted an increased use of apologies and excuses, which in turn were positively related to depressive symptoms. Justifications for COVID-safe behaviors were not significantly associated with either fear of evaluation or depressive symptoms. The practical and theoretical implications are discussed.

Negative Social Exchanges During the Pandemic, Loneliness, and the Mediating Role of Stress and Feeling Misunderstood Among People at High-Risk for COVID-19 Related Complications.

The goal of this study was to investigate the links between social interactions and mental health for people who are high-risk for COVID-19 complications. Specifically, we tested the relationships between negative social exchanges during the pandemic and loneliness through two mediators: stress and feeling misunderstood about one's health status. Data were collected via Amazon's MTurk from participants (N = 271) who self-identified as being high-risk for COVID-19. The results from our model showed both a direct association between negative social interactions and loneliness, and an indirect link between these variables through stress. Overall, these results highlight the importance of understanding social interactions for people who are at high-risk for COVID-19 and their mental well-being. The results and implications are discussed.

Associations Between Mother-Child Communication Apprehension, and Young Adult Resilience, Depressive Symptoms, and Self-Esteem.

This study tested associations between mother-child communication apprehension, adult child communication apprehension, and adult child resilience, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Data were collected from 154 mother-child dyads (N = 308) who completed measures of communication apprehension, depressive symptoms, resilience, and self-esteem. Results showed that mother communication apprehension positively predicted adult child communication apprehension. Moreover, adult child communication apprehension predicted lower levels of resilience and self-esteem, and higher levels of depressive symptoms. Mother communication apprehension indirectly predicted all three psychological outcomes for adult children through adult children's communication apprehension. We discuss the potential implications for communication apprehension and social skill training that could help families improve psychological problems.

The role of background behavior in televised debates: does displaying nonverbal agreement and/or disagreement benefit either debater?

This study examined the effects of background nonverbal behavior displayed with the purpose of undermining one's opponent in televised debates. Students watched one of four versions of a televised debate. In each, while the speaking debater appeared on the main screen, subscreens displayed her nonspeaking opponent's background nonverbal behavior. In one version, the non-speaking debater remained "stone faced" during her opponent's speech, while in the other three she nonverbally displayed occasional disagreement, nearly constant disagreement, or both agreement and disagreement. After viewing the debates, students rated the debaters' credibility, appropriateness, objectivity, and debate skills, in addition to judging who won the debate. Analysis indicated that background nonverbal behavior influenced audience perceptions of debaters' credibility, appropriateness, objectivity, debate skill, and the extent to which the debate was won. These results suggest that adding nonverbal agreement to expressions of nonverbal disagreement do not reduce the negative impacts of communicating disagreement nonverbally during an opponent's speech and may in fact further decrease the audiences' perception of a debater's credibility and overall performance.

Compliments and purchasing behavior in telephone sales interactions.

A fitness equipment salesperson sold more add-on merchandise and earned a higher commission when complimenting customers (47 men, 41 women) than when not complimenting them during telephone interactions. Compliments did not increase the sales of fitness equipment, however.

Audience perceptions of candidates' appropriateness as a function of nonverbal behaviors displayed during televised political debates.

Compared to televised debates using a single-screen format, such debates using a split screen presenting both debaters simultaneously show viewers the nonverbal reactions of each debater's opponent. The authors examined how appropriate or inappropriate such nonverbal behaviors are perceived to be. Students watched one of four versions of a televised debate. One version used a single-screen format, showing only the speaker, whereas the other three versions used a split-screen format in which the speaker's oppodent displayed constant, occasional, or no nonverbal disagreement with the speaker. Students then rated the debaters' appropriateness. Analysis indicated that the opponent was perceived to be less appropriate when he displayed any background disagreement compared to when he did not. The students perceived the speaker as most appropriate when his opponent displayed constant nonverbal disagreement.

Effect of tattoos on perceptions of credibility and attractiveness.

This study examined the effects of tattooing on perception of a male's and a female's credibility and attractiveness. 74 undergraduates viewed a photograph of a tattooed or nontattooed male or female model and then rated dimensions of the models' credibility and attractiveness. Analysis indicated that, although the models' attractiveness ratings were not affected by having a tattoo, their credibility ratings were generally lower when wearing a tattoo than when not wearing one.

Intensity and color of language in attitude change and emotion.

This study examined whether messages using or not using emotionally intense language combined with certain colors, i.e., red, white, or blue, to effect attitude change. Emotionally intense messages were more positively associated with attitude change than were those with low emotional intensity, but no interaction effects or main effects for color were found.

Empathy and generalized reciprocity in compliance with requests for help.

This study examined empathy and reciprocity as explanations for why people comply with requests for help. Participants (35 male and 62 female) imagined being asked for money by a person who had locked keys in a car and then reported how likely they would he to comply with such a request, whether they had previously locked their keys in their car (empathy), and, if so, whether they had been helped (reciprocity). In support of the explanation based on empathy, people who reported previously locking their keys in their cars indicated being more likely to comply.