Lingual neoplasia in nonhuman primates: Description of five cases and a literature review.

BACKGROUND: Documentation of lingual tumors is scarce in nonhuman primates. METHODS: Through a multi-institutional retrospective study we compile cases of primary and metastatic neoplasia in non-human primates. RESULTS: We describe five cases of lingual neoplasia. Three cases are primary lingual tumors: chondro-osteoblastic lipoma in a howler monkey, squamous cell carcinoma, and fibroma in two baboons. We describe two cases of metastatic lymphoma in the tongue in rhesus macaques. A literature review of published lingual neoplasia in nonhuman primates is included in this manuscript. CONCLUSION: Lingual neoplasia is seldom reported in non-human primates.

Object Detection, Recognition, and Tracking Algorithms for ADASs-A Study on Recent Trends.

Advanced driver assistance systems (ADASs) are becoming increasingly common in modern-day vehicles, as they not only improve safety and reduce accidents but also aid in smoother and easier driving. ADASs rely on a variety of sensors such as cameras, radars, lidars, and a combination of sensors, to perceive their surroundings and identify and track objects on the road. The key components of ADASs are object detection, recognition, and tracking algorithms that allow vehicles to identify and track other objects on the road, such as other vehicles, pedestrians, cyclists, obstacles, traffic signs, traffic lights, etc. This information is then used to warn the driver of potential hazards or used by the ADAS itself to take corrective actions to avoid an accident. This paper provides a review of prominent state-of-the-art object detection, recognition, and tracking algorithms used in different functionalities of ADASs. The paper begins by introducing the history and fundamentals of ADASs followed by reviewing recent trends in various ADAS algorithms and their functionalities, along with the datasets employed. The paper concludes by discussing the future of object detection, recognition, and tracking algorithms for ADASs. The paper also discusses the need for more research on object detection, recognition, and tracking in challenging environments, such as those with low visibility or high traffic density.

360° Map Establishment and Real-Time Simultaneous Localization and Mapping Based on Equirectangular Projection for Autonomous Driving Vehicles.

This paper proposes the design of a 360° map establishment and real-time simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) algorithm based on equirectangular projection. All equirectangular projection images with an aspect ratio of 2:1 are supported for input image types of the proposed system, allowing an unlimited number and arrangement of cameras. Firstly, the proposed system uses dual back-to-back fisheye cameras to capture 360° images, followed by the adoption of the perspective transformation with any yaw degree given to shrink the feature extraction area in order to reduce the computational time, as well as retain the 360° field of view. Secondly, the oriented fast and rotated brief (ORB) feature points extracted from perspective images with a GPU acceleration are used for tracking, mapping, and camera pose estimation in the system. The 360° binary map supports the functions of saving, loading, and online updating to enhance the flexibility, convenience, and stability of the 360° system. The proposed system is also implemented on an nVidia Jetson TX2 embedded platform with 1% accumulated RMS error of 250 m. The average performance of the proposed system achieves 20 frames per second (FPS) in the case with a single-fisheye camera of resolution 1024 × 768, and the system performs panoramic stitching and blending under 1416 × 708 resolution from a dual-fisheye camera at the same time.

Deep Learning Derived Object Detection and Tracking Technology Based on Sensor Fusion of Millimeter-Wave Radar/Video and Its Application on Embedded Systems.

This paper proposes a deep learning-based mmWave radar and RGB camera sensor early fusion method for object detection and tracking and its embedded system realization for ADAS applications. The proposed system can be used not only in ADAS systems but also to be applied to smart Road Side Units (RSU) in transportation systems to monitor real-time traffic flow and warn road users of probable dangerous situations. As the signals of mmWave radar are less affected by bad weather and lighting such as cloudy, sunny, snowy, night-light, and rainy days, it can work efficiently in both normal and adverse conditions. Compared to using an RGB camera alone for object detection and tracking, the early fusion of the mmWave radar and RGB camera technology can make up for the poor performance of the RGB camera when it fails due to bad weather and/or lighting conditions. The proposed method combines the features of radar and RGB cameras and directly outputs the results from an end-to-end trained deep neural network. Additionally, the complexity of the overall system is also reduced such that the proposed method can be implemented on PCs as well as on embedded systems like NVIDIA Jetson Xavier at 17.39 fps.

Modeling SARS-CoV-2: Comparative Pathology in Rhesus Macaque and Golden Syrian Hamster Models.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in humans has a wide range of presentations, ranging from asymptomatic or mild symptoms to severe illness. Suitable animal models mimicking varying degrees of clinical disease manifestations could expedite development of therapeutics and vaccines for COVID-19. Here we demonstrate that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection resulted in subclinical disease in rhesus macaques with mild pneumonia and clinical disease in Syrian hamsters with severe pneumonia. SARS-CoV-2 infection was confirmed by formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, or in situ hybridization. Replicating virus in the lungs was identified using in situ hybridization or virus plaque forming assays. Viral encephalitis, reported in some COVID-19 patients, was identified in one macaque and was confirmed with immunohistochemistry. There was no evidence of encephalitis in hamsters. Severity and distribution of lung inflammation were substantially more in hamsters compared with macaques and exhibited vascular changes and virus-induced cytopathic changes as seen in COVID-19 patients. Neither the hamster nor macaque models demonstrated evidence for multisystemic inflammatory syndrome (MIS). Data presented here demonstrate that macaques may be appropriate for mechanistic studies of mild asymptomatic COVID-19 pneumonia and COVID-19-associated encephalitis, whereas Syrian hamsters may be more suited to study severe COVID-19 pneumonia.

ConcentrateNet: Multi-Scale Object Detection Model for Advanced Driving Assistance System Using Real-Time Distant Region Locating Technique.

This paper proposes a deep learning based object detection method to locate a distant region in an image in real-time. It concentrates on distant objects from a vehicular front camcorder perspective, trying to solve one of the common problems in Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) applications, which is, to detect the smaller and faraway objects with the same confidence as those with the bigger and closer objects. This paper presents an efficient multi-scale object detection network, termed as ConcentrateNet to detect a vanishing point and concentrate on the near-distant region. Initially, the object detection model inferencing will produce a larger scale of receptive field detection results and predict a potentially vanishing point location, that is, the farthest location in the frame. Then, the image is cropped near the vanishing point location and processed with the object detection model for second inferencing to obtain distant object detection results. Finally, the two-inferencing results are merged with a specific Non-Maximum Suppression (NMS) method. The proposed network architecture can be employed in most of the object detection models as the proposed model is implemented in some of the state-of-the-art object detection models to check feasibility. Compared with original models using higher resolution input size, ConcentrateNet architecture models use lower resolution input size, with less model complexity, achieving significant precision and recall improvements. Moreover, the proposed ConcentrateNet architecture model is successfully ported onto a low-powered embedded system, NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier, suiting the real-time autonomous machines.

Pseudocowpox virus infection in an American bison (Bison bison).

BACKGROUND: The present report describes a case of pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) infection in a seven-year-old female bison euthanized due to a history of declining condition and sores on the vulva and udder. CASE PRESENTATION: External examination revealed multifocal, raised, keratinized plaques (0.5-2 cm) covering the skin of the ventral surface of the tail, perineum, caudoventral abdomen, udder, both inguinal recesses, and the medial aspects of both thighs. No significant gross lesions were present in the reminder of the tissues examined. Histopathological examination of the affected skin showed moderate epidermal hyperplasia with rete pegs, marked parakeratotic hyperkeratosis with crusts of degenerate neutrophils and cell debris, and few epithelial cells undergoing ballooning degeneration with occasional eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies (3-5 µm Bollinger body). Negative staining electron microscopy from skin revealed typical Parapoxvirus (PPV) particles, which were also confirmed by real-time PCR (Ct =18.6). Metagenomic analysis of the skin samples revealed only poxviruses. The bison parapox B2L envelope gene clustered with other parapox sequences identified from ruminants. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of PCPV virus infection in an American bison. Identification of novel susceptible hosts of parapox viruses sheds light on the viral evolution and highlights the importance of potential economic impact of this disease to the bison industry.

A Deep-Learning Model with Task-Specific Bounding Box Regressors and Conditional Back-Propagation for Moving Object Detection in ADAS Applications.

This paper proposes a deep-learning model with task-specific bounding box regressors (TSBBRs) and conditional back-propagation mechanisms for detection of objects in motion for advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) applications. The proposed model separates the object detection networks for objects of different sizes and applies the proposed algorithm to achieve better detection results for both larger and tinier objects. For larger objects, a neural network with a larger visual receptive field is used to acquire information from larger areas. For the detection of tinier objects, the network of a smaller receptive field utilizes fine grain features. A conditional back-propagation mechanism yields different types of TSBBRs to perform data-driven learning for the set criterion and learn the representation of different object sizes without degrading each other. The design of dual-path object bounding box regressors can simultaneously detect objects in various kinds of dissimilar scales and aspect ratios. Only a single inference of neural network is needed for each frame to support the detection of multiple types of object, such as bicycles, motorbikes, cars, buses, trucks, and pedestrians, and to locate their exact positions. The proposed model was developed and implemented on different NVIDIA devices such as 1080 Ti, DRIVE-PX2 and Jetson TX-2 with the respective processing performance of 67 frames per second (fps), 19.4 fps, and 8.9 fps for the video input of 448 × 448 resolution, respectively. The proposed model can detect objects as small as 13 × 13 pixels and achieves 86.54% accuracy on a publicly available Pascal Visual Object Class (VOC) car database and 82.4% mean average precision (mAP) on a large collection of common road real scenes database (iVS database).

Comparative evaluation of pathogenicity of three isolates of vesicular stomatitis virus (Indiana serotype) in pigs.

Vesicular stomatitis (VS) is a notifiable disease of livestock affecting cattle, horses, pigs and humans. Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) serotypes Indiana and New Jersey are endemic to Central America; however, they also cause sporadic and scattered outbreaks in various countries in South and North America, including the USA. In order to develop an effective experimental challenge model for VSV, we compared the pathogenicity of three VSV serotype Indiana isolates in 36 4-5 week-old pigs. Two bovine isolates of Central American origin and one equine isolate from the USA were used for the experimental infections. Each pig was inoculated with a single isolate by both the intradermal and intranasal routes. Clinical signs of VSV infection were recorded daily for 10 days post-inoculation (days p.i.). Nasal and tonsillar swab samples and blood were collected to monitor immune responses, virus replication and shedding. Post-challenge, characteristic signs of VS were observed, including vesicles on the nasal planum and coronary bands, lameness, loss of hoof walls and pyrexia. Pigs inoculated with the Central American isolates showed consistently more severe clinical signs in comparison to the pigs infected with the USA isolate. Genomic RNA was isolated from the original challenge virus stocks, sequenced and compared to VSV genomes available in GenBank. Comparative genome analysis demonstrated significant differences between the VSV isolate from the USA and the two Central American isolates. Our results indicate that the Central American isolates of VSV serotype Indiana used in this study are more virulent in swine than the USA VSV serotype Indiana isolate and represent good candidate challenge strains for future VSV studies.

Trypsin-independent porcine epidemic diarrhea virus US strain with altered virus entry mechanism.

BACKGROUND: Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (PEDV) is a coronavirus that infects the intestinal tract and causes diarrhea and vomiting in older pigs or extreme dehydration and death that could reach 100% mortality in neonatal piglets. In the US, the first PEDV outbreaks occurred in 2013 and since then US PEDV strains have quickly spread throughout the US and worldwide, causing significant economic and public health concerns. Currently two conditionally approved vaccines exist in the US, but there is no live attenuated vaccine, which is considered the best option in controlling PEDV by inducing transferrable mucosal immunity to susceptible neonatal piglets. In this study, we passaged an US PEDV isolate under various conditions to generate three strains and characterized their growth and antigenicity in cell culture using various assays including Western blot analysis, serum neutralization assay, sequencing analysis and confocal microscopy. Finally, these strains were evaluated for pathogenicity in nursing piglets (1-4 days old). RESULTS: One of the PEDV strains generated in this study (designated as PEDV 8aa) is able to replicate in cells without any protease and grows to a high titer of >8 log10 TCID50/ml in cell culture. Interestingly, replication of PEDV 8aa was severely reduced by trypsin and this correlated with the inhibition of virus attachment and entry into the cells. In neonatal nursing piglets, PEDV 8aa (passage number 70 or 105) was found to be fully attenuated with limited virus shedding. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that applying selective pressure during viral passages can facilitate attainment of viral attenuation and that PEDV 8aa warrants further investigation as an attenuated vaccine.

Broad-spectrum inhibitors against 3C-like proteases of feline coronaviruses and feline caliciviruses.

UNLABELLED: Feline infectious peritonitis and virulent, systemic calicivirus infection are caused by certain types of feline coronaviruses (FCoVs) and feline caliciviruses (FCVs), respectively, and are important infectious diseases with high fatality rates in members of the Felidae family. While FCoV and FCV belong to two distinct virus families, the Coronaviridae and the Caliciviridae, respectively, they share a dependence on viral 3C-like protease (3CLpro) for their replication. Since 3CLpro is functionally and structurally conserved among these viruses and essential for viral replication, 3CLpro is considered a potential target for the design of antiviral drugs with broad-spectrum activities against these distinct and highly important viral infections. However, small-molecule inhibitors against the 3CLpro enzymes of FCoV and FCV have not been previously identified. In this study, derivatives of peptidyl compounds targeting 3CLpro were synthesized and evaluated for their activities against FCoV and FCV. The structures of compounds that showed potent dual antiviral activities with a wide margin of safety were identified and are discussed. Furthermore, the in vivo efficacy of 3CLpro inhibitors was evaluated using a mouse model of coronavirus infection. Intraperitoneal administration of two 3CLpro inhibitors in mice infected with murine hepatitis virus A59, a hepatotropic coronavirus, resulted in significant reductions in virus titers and pathological lesions in the liver compared to the findings for the controls. These results suggest that the series of 3CLpro inhibitors described here may have the potential to be further developed as therapeutic agents against these important viruses in domestic and wild cats. This study provides important insights into the structure and function relationships of 3CLpro for the design of antiviral drugs with broader antiviral activities. IMPORTANCE: Feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) is the leading cause of death in young cats, and virulent, systemic feline calicivirus (vs-FCV) causes a highly fatal disease in cats for which no preventive or therapeutic measure is available. The genomes of these distinct viruses, which belong to different virus families, encode a structurally and functionally conserved 3C-like protease (3CLpro) which is a potential target for broad-spectrum antiviral drug development. However, no studies have previously reported a structural platform for the design of antiviral drugs with activities against these viruses or on the efficacy of 3CLpro inhibitors against coronavirus infection in experimental animals. In this study, we explored the structure-activity relationships of the derivatives of 3CLpro inhibitors and identified inhibitors with potent dual activities against these viruses. In addition, the efficacy of the 3CLpro inhibitors was demonstrated in mice infected with a murine coronavirus. Overall, our study provides the first insight into a structural platform for anti-FIPV and anti-FCV drug development.

Age associated susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection in the K18-hACE2 transgenic mouse model.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still an ongoing global health crisis. Clinical data indicate that the case fatality rate (CFR) is age dependent, with a higher CFR percentage in the elderly population. We compared the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 in young and aged K18-hACE2 transgenic mice. We evaluated morbidity, mortality, viral titers, immune responses, and histopathology in SARS-CoV-2-infected young and old K18-hACE2 transgenic mice. Within the limitation of having a low number of mice per group, our results indicate that SARS-CoV-2 infection resulted in slightly higher morbidity, mortality, and viral replication in the lungs of old mice, which was associated with an impaired IgM response and altered cytokine and chemokine profiles. Results of this study increase our understanding of SARS-CoV-2 infectivity and immuno-pathogenesis in the elderly population.

Rift Valley Fever Phlebovirus Reassortment Study in Sheep.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) in ungulates and humans is caused by a mosquito-borne RVF phlebovirus (RVFV). Live attenuated vaccines are used in livestock (sheep and cattle) to control RVF in endemic regions during outbreaks. The ability of two or more different RVFV strains to reassort when co-infecting a host cell is a significant veterinary and public health concern due to the potential emergence of newly reassorted viruses, since reassortment of RVFVs has been documented in nature and in experimental infection studies. Due to the very limited information regarding the frequency and dynamics of RVFV reassortment, we evaluated the efficiency of RVFV reassortment in sheep, a natural host for this zoonotic pathogen. Co-infection experiments were performed, first in vitro in sheep-derived cells, and subsequently in vivo in sheep. Two RVFV co-infection groups were evaluated: group I consisted of co-infection with two wild-type (WT) RVFV strains, Kenya 128B-15 (Ken06) and Saudi Arabia SA01-1322 (SA01), while group II consisted of co-infection with the live attenuated virus (LAV) vaccine strain MP-12 and a WT strain, Ken06. In the in vitro experiments, the virus supernatants were collected 24 h post-infection. In the in vivo experiments, clinical signs were monitored, and blood and tissues were collected at various time points up to nine days post-challenge for analyses. Cell culture supernatants and samples from sheep were processed, and plaque-isolated viruses were genotyped to determine reassortment frequency. Our results show that RVFV reassortment is more efficient in co-infected sheep-derived cells compared to co-infected sheep. In vitro, the reassortment frequencies reached 37.9% for the group I co-infected cells and 25.4% for the group II co-infected cells. In contrast, we detected just 1.7% reassortant viruses from group I sheep co-infected with the two WT strains, while no reassortants were detected from group II sheep co-infected with the WT and LAV strains. The results indicate that RVFV reassortment occurs at a lower frequency in vivo in sheep when compared to in vitro conditions in sheep-derived cells. Further studies are needed to better understand the implications of RVFV reassortment in relation to virulence and transmission dynamics in the host and the vector. The knowledge learned from these studies on reassortment is important for understanding the dynamics of RVFV evolution.

Lymphoid tissues contribute to viral clonotypes present in plasma at early post-ATI in SIV-infected rhesus macaques.

The rebound-competent viral reservoir (RCVR), comprised of virus that is able to persist during antiretroviral therapy (ART) and mediate reactivation of systemic viral replication and rebound viremia after antiretroviral therapy interruption (ATI), remains the biggest obstacle to the eradication of HIV infection. A better understanding of the cellular and tissue origins and the dynamics of viral populations that initiate rebound upon ATI could help develop targeted therapeutic strategies for reducing the RCVR. In this study, barcoded SIVmac239M was used to infect rhesus macaques to enable monitoring of viral barcode clonotypes contributing to virus detectable in plasma after ATI. Blood, lymphoid tissues (LTs, spleen, mesenteric and inguinal lymph nodes), and non-lymphoid tissues (NLTs, colon, ileum, lung, liver, and brain) were analyzed using viral barcode sequencing, intact proviral DNA assay, single-cell RNA sequencing, and combined CODEX/RNAscope/ in situ hybridization. Four of seven animals had viral barcodes detectable by deep sequencing of plasma at necropsy although plasma viral RNA remained < 22 copies/mL. Among the tissues studied, mesenteric and inguinal lymph nodes, and spleen contained viral barcodes detected in plasma, and trended to have higher cell-associated viral loads, higher intact provirus levels, and greater diversity of viral barcodes. CD4+ T cells were the main cell type harboring viral RNA (vRNA) after ATI. Further, T cell zones in LTs showed higher vRNA levels than B cell zones for most animals. These findings are consistent with LTs contributing to virus present in plasma early after ATI. One Sentence Summary: The reemerging of SIV clonotypes at early post-ATI are likely from the secondary lymphoid tissues.

Immunization with Recombinant Accessory Protein-Deficient SARS-CoV-2 Protects against Lethal Challenge and Viral Transmission.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has led to a worldwide coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Despite the high efficacy of the authorized vaccines, there may be uncertain and unknown side effects or disadvantages associated with current vaccination approaches. Live-attenuated vaccines (LAVs) have been shown to elicit robust and long-term protection by the induction of host innate and adaptive immune responses. In this study, we sought to verify an attenuation strategy by generating 3 double open reading frame (ORF)-deficient recombinant SARS-CoV-2s (rSARS-CoV-2s) simultaneously lacking two accessory ORF proteins (ORF3a/ORF6, ORF3a/ORF7a, and ORF3a/ORF7b). We report that these double ORF-deficient rSARS-CoV-2s have slower replication kinetics and reduced fitness in cultured cells compared with their parental wild-type (WT) counterpart. Importantly, these double ORF-deficient rSARS-CoV-2s showed attenuation in both K18 hACE2 transgenic mice and golden Syrian hamsters. A single intranasal dose vaccination induced high levels of neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and some variants of concern and activated viral component-specific T cell responses. Notably, double ORF-deficient rSARS-CoV-2s were able to protect, as determined by the inhibition of viral replication, shedding, and transmission, against challenge with SARS-CoV-2 in both K18 hACE2 mice and golden Syrian hamsters. Collectively, our results demonstrate the feasibility of implementing the double ORF-deficient strategy to develop safe, immunogenic, and protective LAVs to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated COVID-19. IMPORTANCE Live-attenuated vaccines (LAVs) are able to induce robust immune responses, including both humoral and cellular immunity, representing a very promising option to provide broad and long-term immunity. To develop LAVs for SARS-CoV-2, we engineered attenuated recombinant SARS-CoV-2 (rSARS-CoV-2) that simultaneously lacks the viral open reading frame 3a (ORF3a) in combination with either ORF6, ORF7a, or ORF7b (Δ3a/Δ6, Δ3a/Δ7a, and Δ3a/Δ7b, respectively) proteins. Among them, the rSARS-CoV-2 Δ3a/Δ7b was completely attenuated and able to provide 100% protection against an otherwise lethal challenge in K18 hACE2 transgenic mice. Moreover, the rSARS-CoV-2 Δ3a/Δ7b conferred protection against viral transmission between golden Syrian hamsters.

Inhibition of indoleamine dioxygenase leads to better control of tuberculosis adjunctive to chemotherapy.

The expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), a robust immunosuppressant, is significantly induced in macaque tuberculosis (TB) granulomas, where it is expressed on IFN-responsive macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. IDO expression is also highly induced in human TB granulomas, and products of its activity are detected in patients with TB. In vivo blockade of IDO activity resulted in the reorganization of the granuloma with substantially greater T cells being recruited to the core of the lesions. This correlated with better immune control of TB and reduced lung M. tuberculosis burdens. To study if the IDO blockade strategy can be translated to a bona fide host-directed therapy in the clinical setting of TB, we studied the effect of IDO inhibitor 1-methyl-d-tryptophan adjunctive to suboptimal anti-TB chemotherapy. While two-thirds of controls and one-third of chemotherapy-treated animals progressed to active TB, inhibition of IDO adjunctive to the same therapy protected macaques from TB, as measured by clinical, radiological, and microbiological attributes. Although chemotherapy improved proliferative T cell responses, adjunctive inhibition of IDO further enhanced the recruitment of effector T cells to the lung. These results strongly suggest the possibility that IDO inhibition can be attempted adjunctive to anti-TB chemotherapy in clinical trials.

Lymphoid tissues contribute to plasma viral clonotypes early after antiretroviral therapy interruption in SIV-infected rhesus macaques.

The rebound-competent viral reservoir, composed of a virus that is able to persist during antiretroviral therapy (ART) and mediate reactivation of systemic viral replication and rebound viremia after ART interruption (ATI), remains the biggest obstacle to treating HIV infection. A better understanding of the cellular and tissue origins and the dynamics of viral populations that initiate rebound upon ATI could help develop therapeutic strategies for reducing the rebound-competent viral reservoir. In this study, barcoded simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), SIVmac239M, was used to infect rhesus macaques to enable monitoring of viral barcode clonotypes contributing to virus detectable in plasma after ATI. Blood and tissues from secondary lymphoid organs (spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes, and inguinal lymph nodes) and from the colon, ileum, lung, liver, and brain were analyzed using viral barcode sequencing, intact proviral DNA assay, single-cell RNA sequencing, and combined CODEX and RNAscope in situ hybridization. Four of seven animals had viral barcodes detectable by deep sequencing of plasma at necropsy, although plasma viral RNA remained below 22 copies per milliliter. Among the tissues studied, mesenteric lymph nodes, inguinal lymph nodes, and spleen contained viral barcodes detected in plasma. CD4+ T cells were the main cell type harboring viral RNA after ATI. Furthermore, T cell zones in lymphoid tissues showed higher viral RNA abundance than B cell zones for most animals. These findings are consistent with lymphoid tissues contributing to the virus present in plasma early after ATI.

Pathology in Practice.

In collaboration with the American College of Veterinary Pathologists.

Isoniazid and rifapentine treatment effectively reduces persistent M. tuberculosis infection in macaque lungs.

A once-weekly oral dose of isoniazid and rifapentine for 3 months (3HP) is recommended by the CDC for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI). The aim of this study is to assess 3HP-mediated clearance of M. tuberculosis bacteria in macaques with asymptomatic LTBI. Twelve Indian-origin rhesus macaques were infected with a low dose (~10 CFU) of M. tuberculosis CDC1551 via aerosol. Six animals were treated with 3HP and 6 were left untreated. The animals were imaged via PET/CT at frequent intervals. Upon treatment completion, all animals except 1 were coinfected with SIV to assess reactivation of LTBI to active tuberculosis (ATB). Four of 6 treated macaques showed no evidence of persistent bacilli or extrapulmonary spread until the study end point. PET/CT demonstrated the presence of significantly more granulomas in untreated animals relative to the treated group. The untreated animals harbored persistent bacilli and demonstrated tuberculosis (TB) reactivation following SIV coinfection, while none of the treated animals reactivated to ATB. 3HP treatment effectively reduced persistent infection with M. tuberculosis and prevented reactivation of TB in latently infected macaques.

Antiretroviral therapy timing impacts latent tuberculosis infection reactivation in a Mycobacterium tuberculosis/SIV coinfection model.

Studies using the nonhuman primate model of Mycobacterium tuberculosis/simian immunodeficiency virus coinfection have revealed protective CD4+ T cell-independent immune responses that suppress latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) reactivation. In particular, chronic immune activation rather than the mere depletion of CD4+ T cells correlates with reactivation due to SIV coinfection. Here, we administered combinatorial antiretroviral therapy (cART) 2 weeks after SIV coinfection to study whether restoration of CD4+ T cell immunity occurred more broadly, and whether this prevented reactivation of LTBI compared to cART initiated 4 weeks after SIV. Earlier initiation of cART enhanced survival, led to better control of viral replication, and reduced immune activation in the periphery and lung vasculature, thereby reducing the rate of SIV-induced reactivation. We observed robust CD8+ T effector memory responses and significantly reduced macrophage turnover in the lung tissue. However, skewed CD4+ T effector memory responses persisted and new TB lesions formed after SIV coinfection. Thus, reactivation of LTBI is governed by very early events of SIV infection. Timing of cART is critical in mitigating chronic immune activation. The potential novelty of these findings mainly relates to the development of a robust animal model of human M. tuberculosis/HIV coinfection that allows the testing of underlying mechanisms.